The concept of the triple helix model of innovation can be a useful tool for understanding such a transition in agricultural biotechnology in India. Triple Helix Model of Innovation and the Politics of Genetically Modified Crops: Cases of Bt Cotton and Bt Brinjal in India.
Review of Literature
- Historical Background to Agricultural Research in India
- Sociology of Science and Technology
- Contours of Public Policy
- Models of the Policy Process
- Post-academic Science
- Triple Helix Model of Innovation
It is a relatively new field in the realm of science and technology studies, which has traditionally been dominated by the philosophy and history of science. For this reason political attitudes and policies play a crucial role in shaping science and technology policies in India.
Research Gap
The triple helix model of innovation should cover the concerns of citizens including key actors in agricultural biotechnology. The triple helix model or government-academia-industry interaction is complex and its qualitative analysis is difficult in the case of developing countries like India.
Rationale for the Topic
Research Questions
Objectives of the Study
Methodology
Profile of the Respondents
A majority of the scientists interviewed are over 50, of which 66.7 percent are senior scientists indicating that they have witnessed pre- and post-WTO regulated IPR regime. Also, 39.5 percent of scientists interviewed completed their doctoral research in India, 6.2 percent of scientists completed their doctoral research abroad.
Chapter Scheme of the Thesis
Furthermore, it discusses how public policy and networks between different actors lead to transition in traditional model of agricultural innovation system in India. In the first chapter, we critically reviewed literature on science, agriculture and public policy and triple helix model of innovation in the Indian context.
Historical-Sociological Background to Agriculture Research System in India
Public Sector Investment in Agriculture in India
Public investment in biotechnology has increased during the Ministry of Science and Technology) in India. According to Singh and Pal (2015), increasing centralization of agricultural R&D expenditure in India is not a reality as the expenditure of SAUs is two-thirds of national research expenditure while ICAR institutes spend only one-third.
Private Sector Investment in Agriculture in India
Also, the adoption of Bt cotton in 2002 paved the way for the private sector in agriculture in India. Private sector investment in the agricultural biotechnology sector is the largest with the greatest concentration in Bt cotton.
Mode 1 and Mode 2 Forms of Knowledge Production
On the one hand, in mode 1 form of knowledge production, universities were involved in basic research and industries were involved in applied research. On the other hand, in mode 2 form of knowledge production, universities and industries tried to understand the need or role of the other and undertook research in both basic and applied sciences (Martin and Etzkowitz 2000).
Triple Helix Model of Innovation
The components of the triple helix system made a distinction between (i) R&D and non-R&D innovators (ii) the “single sphere” and. The main functions of the triple helix system are the generation, dissemination and use of knowledge and innovation.
Networking between Government, Academia and Industry
By assuming this new role and responsibility, the university has become one of the important actors in the triple helix model of innovation. The emergence of such controversies indicates changes in the normative framework of the triple helix model (Etzkowitz 2001).
Basic and Applied Research
As the distinction between science and technology blurs, the distinction between basic and applied science has become opaque. In general, basic research can be if we want to distinguish between basic research and applied research.
Agricultural Innovation System
This expansion of the concept of innovation makes the government and university significant players in the process of innovation, both collaboratively and individually. Innovation comes from the activities of the diverse actors such as multinational firms, businesses, start-ups, universities and research institutions (OECD . Science, Technology and Innovation Outlook 2014).
Science and Technology Policies in Post-colonial India
The Science and Technology Policy (2003) follows in the footsteps of Science Policy Decision (1958) and Technology Policy Statement (1983). The main objective of the Science and Technology Policy (2003) is to cultivate scientific temper and fully integrate science and technology into national activities.
New Agriculture Policy (2000)
Second generation Bt seeds were introduced by industry to develop bollworm resistance, but no independent testing was conducted by regulators on the authenticity or safety of second generation Bt seeds.
Public-Private Partnerships in Agriculture
The private sector analyzes its interests, taking into account the benefits of farmers who have few resources. Most funds aim to improve the effectiveness of research through better objectives, such as increasing accountability, effective institutional reforms, visible socio-economic impact and close private sector participation in the management of research funds.
The International Politics of Genetically Modified Food
Promoting partnership is successful on the following grounds (Ayyappan et al. 2007): . a) Sufficient emphasis on conducting research. In India, for example, there is widespread evidence that whatever edicts emerge from the deliberations of regulatory committees, the reality “on the ground” is that farmers seek access to genetically modified seeds largely through the black markets.
GMOs: Risk and Precautionary Measures
The EU and many developing countries such as Brazil, India, Pakistan and South Africa believe that before genetically modified products are approved, they should be subject to a rigorous scientific risk assessment (Qaim 2005). There are disagreements about the use of genetically modified products in the EU and many developing countries.
Issues of GM Crops and Biosafety
India has far more small adopters of GM crops than any other country (Stone 2012). The committee's report stated that 93 percent of cultivated land worldwide supports conventional cultivation, and only a few countries carry out concentrated cultivation of genetically modified crops.
Cases of Bt Cotton and Bt Brinjal
Bt Brinjal variety is also being developed through the same private-private collaboration between the Maharashtra Hybrid Seed Company (MAHYCO), the Indian seed company, and Monsanto, its American counterpart, which developed and marketed the first transgenic crop called Bt cotton in India ( Qaim 2005). It is also important to note the claim made by the opponents, which include health risks from consuming Bt Brinjal to the threat of foreign control of the Indian seed market (Murali 2016).
Technology Input in Agriculture/Low-External-Input Technology (LEIT)
LEIT approaches include limiting the use of external inputs such as inorganic fertilizers and pesticides and using a wide range of local and naturally available resources and combining traditional and improved methods to manage soil fertility, water, pests and other agronomic needs. The individual methods used include a wide range of technologies such as water harvesting, soil and water conservation measures, minimal or no tillage, use of manure and compost, incorporation of crop residues, biomass transfer and mulching, use of butterfly cover, shrubs or trees in improved systems fallow or catch crops, use of crop rotation to manage soil fertility and pests, and integrated pest management (Tripp 2006).
Organic Farming and Biotechnology
Conclusion
Finally, it discussed the emerging technology issues in the case of agricultural biotechnology, which have led to the transition in agricultural biotechnology research in India. It also tries to capture how this networking leads to knowledge production/innovation in agriculture.
Genealogy of Collaborative Networking in Agricultural Biotechnology in India
The potential for economic development and innovation in the knowledge society lies in the most prominent role in the hybridization of different institutions such as government-industry and universities and the formation of the network that generates new knowledge (Ranga and Etzkowitz 2013). The network between two public or private domains may be easier or more difficult to determine and will depend on the period of network connections, visibility, membership, or activities in the public domain.
Collaborative Networking in the Present Study
Scientists working in basic research tend to collaborate less with industry and are more indulgent in publications of the result output. In general, industries do not show their willingness to cooperate with scientists working in basic research.
Motivational Factors
As mentioned earlier, scientists working in the areas of basic research usually interact less with industry and devote themselves more to the publication of their research results, while scientists working in the areas of applied research interact more with industry in pre-testing, field studies, commercialization . research results and so on. A basic research scientist may not have expertise in applied research and vice versa.
Types of Collaboration
In all the cooperation projects, the cooperation partners have their own deliveries; and their duties and roles are well defined in the agreement; their funding agreements also mention the share of each collaboration and the clause on IPR. Such clauses should be clearly formulated in the ownership agreement to avoid conflicts of interest.
Hindrances to Collaboration
This kind of cooperation mostly happens in the case of cooperation of researchers across continents. Scientific cooperation is often successful if the entire team of collaborators cooperates equally and fulfills their contractual or otherwise agreed obligations.
Triple Helix Model of Innovation
The interaction of actors and the interaction of institutions at different levels should be increased by introducing multidisciplinary projects involving scientists from different institutions and different disciplines to promote networking between the different actors of the triple helix model. Future detailed study on informal collaboration between scientists of different organizational settings will help us understand the development of the triple helix.
Networking with Industry
Public institutions will receive funds from the sale of products developed in collaboration with industry. When working in collaboration with industry, it is important that the university understands the needs of industry.
University’s Role as Entrepreneur
As the university becomes closely involved in the transfer of technology and the founding of new companies, it attracts a new entrepreneurial identity (Etzkowitz 2001). In addition to providing laboratory facilities, a university can assist in technology transfer activities such as the acquisition of patents.
Patents
Pattern of Collaborative Patents
Patents developed from interdisciplinary collaboration are more comparable to intercontinental and interinstitutional ones. Scientists involved in interdisciplinary collaborative patents are more than just inter-institutional and inter-continental collaborative projects.
Collaborative Projects
Let us look at the inter-institutional collaboration of scientists from various research institutes, universities, industry and international organizations in India. The mandate for most projects is for a fixed period of time, for example 3-5 years, and this, according to basic research scientists, hinders the idea of the project and it is not possible to get significant results or research results in a short period of time.
Classification of Scientists by the Area of Research Involved
This fact can be supported by the interview conducted by scientists working in different disciplines such as applied, basic and development research, which indicate that scientists working in applied research network more with scientists from other disciplines or industry because they need for expertise from another field due to the interdisciplinary nature of the project. It is also clear that researchers who work in directed or oriented research areas are much smaller than the researchers who work exclusively in basic or applied research.
International Scientific Networking
Similarly, 8.6 percent of scientists are involved in three or four projects with the aim of carrying out research activities and 17.3 percent of scientists are involved in more than five collaborating partners with the aim of carrying out research activities and knowledge to share. or technology transfer or any other useful research assignment. Interinstitutional international networking is more compared to intercontinental collaboration networks, but much less than international scientific networking in interdisciplinary research activities.
National Scientific Collaborative Networking
In the present study, 87.7 percent of researchers are engaged in interdisciplinary national scientific collaboration, while 12.3 percent of researchers are not engaged in interdisciplinary collaboration in India. Looking at overall inter-institutional networking in India, including collaboration on projects, patents, publications, data analysis, equipment facilities, etc., about 29.6 percent of researchers are not involved in inter-institutional scientific networks in India.
Publications
During the phase the percentage of scientists interviewed for the current study have publications. During the percentage of scientists interviewed for this study, they have publications in national and international journals.
Government-Academia-Industry Networking
A total of 44.3 percent of scientists are involved in collaborative networking with academia and industry. A total of 18.6 percent of scientists are involved in collaborative networking between government, academia and industry at the international level.
Conclusion
If we briefly look at national views on genetically modified crops, we see a mixed scenario. Scientists in India claim that there are protests against genetically modified crops in agricultural biotechnology and there is even talk of a moratorium, while activist groups want a permanent ban on genetically modified crops.
Scientists’ Perception on GM Crops
Case of Bt Cotton
By 2010, 700 Bt cotton seeds were marketed in India by 30 small and medium private seed companies. Bt cotton has been introduced in India which avoids bollworm infestation, chemical sprays, high yield, early harvest, assured market price etc.
Case of Bt Brinjal
The case of Bt brinjal is highly controversial and there is a huge public outcry over its commercial release in India. The moratorium on Bt brinjal is not affecting the MNCs and not the Indian scientists it is affecting.
Triple Helix Model of Innovation and the Politics of GM Crops
So there is a clear consensus among civil society organizations that they do not want genetically modified crops in India. Debates on agricultural biotechnology in India focus on genetically modified crops, particularly Bt cotton and Bt eggplant.
Clearing Doubts
In India, Bt Cotton is released by Monsanto with the help of the local industry called Mayhco. This collaborative network is successful in India in the case of Bt cotton.
Regulating GM Technology
Contamination of Indian cotton with illegal Bt cotton was done in Gujarat in 2001, indicating a serious regulatory failure in the country. Similarly, in the case of Bt crops, we need to understand the need and demand of the current agricultural scenario.
Networking in Biotech Crops
Similarly, if we look at the number of researchers working on project on Bt brinjal, it is a different story compared to Bt cotton. Furthermore, researchers interviewed for this study reported that Bt brinjal is already in the market albeit unofficially.
Policy Implications
The Genetic Engineering Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) acts as the regulatory body for genetically modified crops. In the case of genetically modified crops, the political nature of policy making is hidden by the use of technical language, as policy reports are often characterized as objective and scientific through the use of scientific and legal language.
Conclusion
An attempt was made to study networking between government, academia and industry in the case of Bt cotton and Bt brinjal in India. Further, it discusses how public policy framing and networking among various actors leads to transition in the modes of agricultural innovation system in India.
Role of Industry in Agricultural Innovation System in India
Weak Linkages between Academia and Industry
One of the decisive factors leading to such underutilization of such technology is that private sector investment is less in this area. Agricultural production and technological revolution are the main goals of the state, which accounts for 92.9 percent of total R&D spending under OECD 2014).
Funding Mechanisms
Both the state and industry should invest in research and development of agricultural biotechnology.
Bases of Selection of Projects
This reflects a lack of flexibility on the part of scientists involved in basic research who do not want to work in collaboration with the industry staff whose working style differs from the university's scientists. The current structure of agricultural research is such that there is a decrease in funding for basic research.
Traditional Knowledge in Agricultural Innovation System (AIS)
Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPVFRA)
Apart from ensuring the rights of a breeder, it also protects the rights of farmers in the case of India. This act includes the rights of breeders to produce, sell, trade, distribute, import or export a variety, in short, full control over formal marketing.
Mandates of Institutes
For example, plant breeding should not be relegated to few corporates/individuals, but should be used in the best interest of the public. So, institutional mandate of the institute should be towards scientific collaboration where scientists can collaborate with their choice.
Public-Private Partnership in Agricultural Innovation System
Challenges of Biotechnology Industry
Most collaborative initiatives are initiated to obtain funding from institutes. Private investment from industry should be increased because funding is very necessary for R&D development.
Triple Helix and Networking in Agricultural Innovation System
Gap between the Laboratory and the Field
In the case of Monsanto, it tends to rely on their internal reasons to carry out short-term tasks such as dealing with simple technical problems. This helps them reduce their research costs and benefits the industry, especially in the case of small businesses.
Scientists on Intellectual Property Rights
These should be implemented in universities and the University Grant Commission (UGC) has also directed universities to establish IPR and IPR Regulation Cell and it should be managed by legal experts. Most researchers who file an intellectual property rights claim are not fully aware of what intellectual property rights are.
National Agriculture Innovation System in India
Infrastructure of Patent Office in India
This heralded a change in the erstwhile patent policy in India as both processes and products were under the purview of patenting. Information technology systems are essential components in the transition from laboratories to the field.
Science and Policymaking in India
Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (2013)
The private sector is more interested in applying findings and thus collaborates less with basic research scientists. The timescale involved in the diffusion process depends on the nature of the new technology and its novelty, complexity and profitability.
Conclusion
Although still at a very early stage of its development, the needs and requirements of the current state of agriculture support the interaction between government, industry and academia with the change in policy measures. Government policies are very interdisciplinary in nature and should change based on the current trend in the economy.
