CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.6. Study of SPHERE Guidelines
In 1997, a group of NGOs and the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement took the initiative to develop ‘The Sphere project Handbook’; a set of minimum standards to improve the quality of humanitarian response during disaster and conflict and enhance the accountability of the humanitarian system to disaster affected people. It was based on two core philosophies:
“first, that those affected by disaster or conflict have a right to life with dignity and, therefore, a right to assistance; and second, that all possible steps should be taken to alleviate human suffering arising out of disaster or conflict” (Humanitarian Charter and minimum standards in humanitarian response, 2018).
In a strive to implement these beliefs into action, the Humanitarian Charter was framed, and a set of internationally recognized minimum standards was published as a handbook for the four life-saving sectors, namely: 1) Water supply and sanitation; 2) Food; 3) Shelter and settlement;
and 4) Healthcare. Each of these key lifesaving sectors has been reflected in the Handbook’s four technical chapters. Though each chapter covers a specific industry but often there is an overlap within the chapters which has the ability to influence the outcome. Thus the success of the response lies in the correct coordination among all the sectors.
Noteworthy, although the handbook has laid down the minimum standards, it is not a law and does not imply meeting one and all the requirements. In nature, these standards are qualitative and are intended to set the goals, monitor progress and assess outcomes. It should be used as a tool to realize the gap between the sphere indicators and reality, understand its reasons, and assess its fallibility, to be able to take congruous actions to assuage outcome.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has stated “ all human beings are born free and are equal in dignity and rights; have the right to a standard of adequate living, which includes food, clothing, housing and medical care; as well as the right to security” [(UN, 1948)]
However dignity goes beyond physical well-being. It encompasses the respect for psychosocial well-being as well. To accomplish this and fill the gaps, Humanitarian responses must abide by these basic principles, namely:
1. Avoid exposure to further harm;
2. Impartial assistance
3. Protection from violence and
4. Assistance for rehabilitation.
To aid this goal, the Sphere handbook acknowledges that the affected population should be an integral part in decision making which is possible when affected population has access to safe shelter/community places during disaster or conflict.
2.6.1. Shelter, settlement and non-food items (NFI), one of the key life-saving chapters in the Sphere handbook. Shelter ensures personal safety, assures refuge from the external environment, resist diseases and assist recovery. It offers privacy, which is vital for human dignity, and serves as the springboard for self-sufficiency. The “Minimum standards in shelter, settlement and non-food items” is one of the technical chapters covered in the Sphere handbook that, for the purpose of this specific work, will be deeply discussed.
NFIs, include clothing, bedding, household, and shelter support items. From the architectural planning point of view, disaster-affected population will need access to safe, fuel-efficient cooking facilities. Nevertheless, for safety purposes, it might be easy to manage adequate ventilation and fire safety in communal cooking facilities than in individual arrangement for each household. Thus, depending on the shelter solution, shelter support items, such as construction materials, tools and fixings as well as technical guidance, whenever required, should be part of the relief assistance packages. According to the Sphere, basic standard adequate living can be translated into:
• Ample space
• Protection from environmental and health hazards
• Readily available, affordable and accessible services, facilities, materials alongwith habitable location which is culturally appropriate.
• Sustainable access to natural and common resources, including safe drinking water and energy for cooking, heating and lighting; sanitation and washing facilities; means of food storage; refuse disposal; site drainage; and emergency services
• Suitable arrangement of settlements and housing to allow safe access to healthcare services, schools, childcare centers and other social provisions with relevant opportunities to earn a livelihood
As a part of a rapid response during times of disaster or emergency, it becomes imperative to arrange for quick shelter solutions. In such circumstances and depending on other factors (logistical support) they could either be settled in public buildings used as community centers, be hosted by families or be accommodated in existing planned camps. However, wherever feasible, the disaster-affected population should be assisted with transitional shelter near their original homes as possible. It will enable them to reconstruct and repair their homes and maintain their livelihoods and social connections.
2.6.2. Water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion (WASH)
Water is one of the essential basic necessities to sustain human life. During times of disaster, easy access to clean and potable water can make a dramatic difference. Besides providing life support to prevent dehydration and an important commodity for activities of daily living, it may be a source of many communicable diseases which can lead to significant public health hazards during times of an emergency/disaster. Though the amount of water required depends on many factors like the weather, type of activities undertaken, individual habits etc., the following table illustrates the basic survival water needs per the Sphere handbook.
Figure 2.5: Settlement typology post disaster
From a planning perspective, the idea should be that each water access point should be nearby (no more than 500m from each household), and the queue time can be restricted to 30 minutes. The following table illustrates the recommendation by the Sphere.
Another aspect of planning a transitional shelter is the prompt availability of public toilets and an effective faeces disposal system. This helps not only in maintaining personal privacy but also restores cultural dignity and helps prevent faecal contamination and disease transmission.
It has been suggested that one toilet should be made available for 20 people, and this should be organized based on gender. Further, all faeces disposal and containment arrangements should be at least 30 meters away from the ground water source and 1.5 meters above the water table (Humanitarian Charter and minimum standards in humanitarian response, 2018).
While designing a solution, it is also essential to provide the provision of correct solid waste disposal and water drainage to prevent vector-borne diseases. From a planning point this should include:
▪ 100 litres refuse container per 10 household
▪ Appropriate marking and fencing of refuse pits or bins in a specific area
▪ Less than 100 metres distance of the household refuse pit/area to the area of burial or incineration (Ginjeira do Nascimento, 2015).
2.6.3. Food security and nutrition
Adequate food and nutrition are a pre-requisite for a healthy community and can prevent morbidity and mortality indirectly. During disaster, food security becomes a humanitarian duty. However, from a planning point of view, the provided food should be -quick to cook, and require less fuel, commodities (water, grocery etc.) and accessories (utensils etc.).
Storehouses should also be a part of the planning. In case community cooking is practised, distribution points are provided in locations near to other facilities like hand wash areas, toilets and shade.
Figure 2.6: Water requirement in post disaster settlements
2.6.4. Health action
A medical emergency response, along with other health care facilities, should be present at times of disaster not only to mitigate direct consequences of a catastrophe like death or injury but also to alleviate suffering from infectious diseases and malnutrition. Proper health care can prevent indirect impacts of overcrowding, inadequate ventilation, and poor quality and quantity of water and sanitation (Ginjeira do Nascimento, 2015). These can lead to better living conditions and survival rates among disaster-affected population.
The post-disaster response should be able to provide for (Humanitarian Charter and minimum standards in humanitarian response, 2018):
• one essential health unit/10,000 population (basic health units are primary healthcare facilities where general health services are offered)
• one health centre/50,000 people
• one district or rural hospital/250,000 people
• more than ten inpatient and maternity beds/10,000 people