The selection was based on their per capita income, GDP growth rate, population (over 1 million), degree of urbanization and condition of the environment. 75 Figure 4.6a Trends of EF per capita, BC per capita in Bangladesh 77 Figure 4.6b Ecological footprint components per capita in.
Introduction
Project focus
However, complete analysis or understanding of the environmental consequences of this phenomenon has not been achieved until now. Therefore, with more than fifty percent of the global population, the decisions made in this region will reverberate around the globe.
Aim, objectives and research questions of the studied territory
- Aim of the study
- Research questions and objectives
To analyze the development path (weak or strong) by examining the status of human and natural capital in the selected countries. To critically examine the challenges and barriers in mainstreaming natural capital in the selected Asian countries.
Thesis layout
This chapter also explains how economic development has affected social indicators in selected Asian countries. Using panel data econometrics, this chapter examines the underlying factors behind the growth patterns identified in Chapter 4.
Sustainable Development: From Malthus to Ecological Economics
- Evolution of the concept of Sustainable Development
- Classical Economics and Limit to growth (17 th to late 18 th century)
- The Industrial Revolution and the era of Neoclassical School (1760-
- The rise of environmental concerns
- Environment and Resource Economics (1960s- 1990s)
- Sustainable Development in the Neoclassical Era
- Growth of Ecological Economics and Strong Sustainability (1987-2010)
- Full world economy
- Strong sustainability
- Mainstreaming natural capital in decision making for
- Summing up
Therefore, the "full world" situation inhibits the ability of natural resources to serve in the future. The physical growth of the economy interferes with the other parts of the final ecosphere.
Research Methodology
Introduction
Description of the study area
- The study region: Asia
- The environmental concerns in Asia
This is because the economic growth in the region is fueled by the region's rich natural resources and services." At the same time, the region accounted for 50 percent (from 38 percent in 1990) of the world's total CO2 emissions in the same year.
Selection of the countries
- High-income countries
- Upper middle-income countries
- Lower middle-income countries
All these three countries trade and import goods among themselves as well as with other Asian countries. The country maintains export as well as import relations with many Asian countries and with the USA and Germany.
Description of data
- Indicators for weak and strong sustainability
- Ecological Footprint approach
- Adjusted Net Savings
The tracing is done in terms of regenerative capacity of the existing natural resources (Galli et al., 2014). Thus, EF quantifies human demand and BC serves as an ecological measure and quantifies nature's ability to meet this demand of humanity (Galli et al., 2014).
Data analysis
- Time series trend analysis
- Panel data analysis
- Basic panel data regression model
- Error component model
- Pooled OLS
- Fixed effect approach
- Random effect approach
- Fixed versus Random Effects
- Hausman test: Fixed effects model or Random effects model
- Dependent variables
- Independent variables
- Data transformation
- Test for stationarity
- Test for cross-sectional dependence
In this way, the individuality of cross-sectional units is taken into account (Gujarathi and Sangeetha, 2007). Estimation of time-constant covariates is important in this study as it can provide information on the various determinants of the dependent variable EF per capita. Much of the variation in this study may be the result of variation between, that is, the information contained in the means (across countries or time).
The selection of the appropriate estimation technique is made on the basis of the Hausman test. Therefore, these factors are considered in this study to examine what role they play in the sustainability path followed by each of the selected Asian countries.
Source of Data
Panel data regression equation
It takes into account factors such as country-specific policies, government capability and willingness, geographical location, resource allocations, technology, efficiency and climate. The term (intercept) sweeps out variation between countries with estimates based on only variation within each country. HI is a panel consisting of two East Asian countries - the Republic of Korea and Singapore; UMI is a panel of three South Asian countries-China, Malaysia and Thailand and the 3rd panel LMI consists of 5 Asian countries-Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Pakistan and Philippines.
Limitation of the data
Asia's Growth Pattern: Weak or Strong Sustainability?
- Introduction
- Sustainable development path in HI countries
- Sustainable development path in UMI countries
- Sustainable development path in LMI countries
- Summary
However, the increasing trend of ecological footprint per capita is a matter of real concern in all UMI countries. Since 2005, both adjusted net savings and ecological footprint per capita have shown increasing trends. In India (Figure 4.7a) both ANS per capita and EF per capita have shown increasing trends.
There is a decreasing crop and forest area per population in India (Figure 4.7b); but the CO2 footprint is gradually increasing. In the Philippines (figure 4.10a), the difference between EC per inhabitant and B.C. per population very quickly.
Underlying Factors Defining the Growth Patterns in Asia: A Panel
- Introduction
- Panel data analysis
- Cross-sectional dependency test results
- Unit root test results
- Panel data estimation results
- Fixed effect and Random effect estimation (overall)
- Estimation results (based on income groups)
- Discussion on the findings
The results from both evaluations (FE and RE) are similar, which indicates the consistency of the results. The population effect is negative and significant on the EF per capita of the UMI group. The LMI group is experiencing an average GDP growth rate of 6% - 7% per year, which has resulted in a significant increase in GDP per capita of the LMI group.
This is one of the reasons why the EF per capita for these countries is very low. This study covers a long history of economic development and environmental consequences of the selected Asian countries.
Mainstreaming Natural Capital into Decision Making for
Natural vs man-made capital
A high HDI and high ecological footprint show that they followed a weak sustainability path by replacing their natural capital with man-made capital. Since these countries do not have enough natural resources left, they need serious policies to limit and change the direction of the trend (Niccolucci et al., 2012) and preserve the natural capital for the welfare of the population. In other words, human capital can be used to improve the status of natural capital and vice versa.
A country with high EF may have a high human development index indicating that natural capital is successfully replaced by human or man-made capital. Human well-being depends on the well-being of natural capital, and if natural capital is not integrated into socio-economic policies, they may not be left with sufficient resources to support their productive activities.
Status of mainstreaming natural capital in Asia
The Philippines was the first among the selected LMI Asian countries to take the initiative to integrate natural capital into their national income accounts. The report was adopted by the Cabinet Cluster on Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation, which now works to ensure the integrity of the environment, climate adaptation and mitigation strategies and measured by promoting the sustainability of natural capital (GFN, 2016). The process of natural capital accounting is a process of appreciating what the environment has provided to society.
Until now, developing countries have only viewed natural capital from a conservation perspective. We hardly realize that through scientific investment it is possible to successfully integrate natural capital into social sustainability by using it to improve social indicators.
Challenges and barriers in the mainstreaming natural capital
Environment and Economic Growth: Conclusion and Looking
Summary of the findings
All the selected countries have an increasing per capita ecological footprint and decreasing biocapacity indicating that they have exceeded their demand for the natural resource. The panel data analysis, across the income groups—high, upper middle, and lower middle—identified the underlying factors driving the per capita EF in the selected Asian countries. The result indicates that economic growth is the common factor responsible for driving the per capita EF in all the three income groups of countries - high, upper middle and lower middle to have a significant impact on the natural capital.
19 It is meant that the demand per capita in the selected Asian countries has exceeded the availability of natural capital per capita on a global scale (Appendix 13). In the case of UMI countries, the panel data regression models found that GDP per capita is the significant contributor to driving economic growth and also putting pressure on the natural capital of these countries.
Limitations and future research possibilities
For one unit increase in biocapacity per capita, ecological footprint per capita is expected to increase by 0.0648 units, holding all other variables constant (p<0.000). In HI countries, per capita biocapacity has no significant effect on per capita ecological footprint (p<0.664). However, for one unit increase in biocapacity per capita, ecological footprint per capita is expected to increase by 0.3489 units, holding all other variables constant (p<0.000).
A unit increase in the population growth rate decreases the ecological footprint per capita by 0.276 units (p<0.000). Urbanization does not have a significant impact on ef per capita even in upper middle income countries. However, for a unit increase in biocapacity per capita, the ecological footprint per capita is expected to increase by 0.3197 units, holding all other variables constant (p<0.000).
An increase in population growth increases the ecological footprint per capita by 0.0777 units (p<0.001).
Ranking of Asian countries in various selection criteria of the
Selection procedure of indicators for Weak and Strong
Indicator Type SS/WS Policy Relevance High/Medium m/Low Important for RQ Data Availability Simplicity Validity Accurate and Affordable Data Usability in Sustainability Reliability Robustness No. Furthermore, it was later pointed out that since the GNNP is an instantaneous measure, it cannot definitively indicate whether the economy is on the WS path (see Dietz and Neumayer, 2007). Indicator Type SS/WS Policy Relevance High/Medium/Low Important for RQ Data Availability Simplicity Validity Accurate and Affordable Data Usability in Sustainability Reliability Robustness No.
A necessary, though not sufficient, condition for all measures to achieve WS is to measure the maximum amount of output produced that can be consumed at any one time while keeping wealth constant by a simple policy signal.
Production of primary forestry products and import and export of primary and derived forestry products. Data on physical quantities (tonnes and m3) of products (timber and wood fuel) produced, imported and exported by each country. Production of primary fishery products and import and export of primary and derived fishery products.
Data on physical quantities (tons) of marine and inland fish species landed, as well as imports and exports of fish products. Carbon sequestration soil is the only forest soil currently accepted by the Ecological Footprint methodology.
Calculating Adjusted Net Saving
MD Mineral depletion is the ratio of present value (PV) of rents of tin, gold, lead, zinc, iron, copper, nickel, silver, bauxite and phosphate, discounted at 4%, to the depletion time of the mineral resource. NFD Net forest depletion is the product of unit resource rent and the excess roundwood harvest over natural growth. PMD PM10 harm is the willingness to pay (WTP) to avoid mortality and morbidity attributed to particulate matter estimates.
ANS* Adjusted net saving is the country's total stock of human and natural capital minus the depreciable value of natural resources. So it's net national savings plus education spending minus energy depletion, mineral depletion, net forest depletion, carbon dioxide damage, particulate emission damage, ie.
Ecological deficit in Indonesia
Unit Root Test Results
Every time GDP per capita increases by ten units, the ecological footprint per capita will increase by 0.3252 units, holding all other variables constant (p<0.000). Every time GDP per capita increases by ten units, the ecological footprint per capita will increase by 3.169 units, holding all other variables constant (p<0.000). Urbanization has a highly significant positive impact on per capita ef in these high-income countries.
When GDP per inhabitant increases by ten units, the ecological footprint per per capita increase by 1.735 units, holding all other variables constant (p<0.000). When GDP per inhabitant increases by ten units, the ecological footprint per per capita increase by 3.067 units, holding all other variables constant (p<0.000).
Panel data output tables-Pooled regression
Panel data output tables-Fixed Effects and Random Effects
Social indicators to measure social sustainability
Ecological Footprint of each country at global scale
