Vol.03, Issue 12, December 2018, Available Online: www.ajeee.co.in/index.php/AJEEE ANALYSIS OF CLIMATE CHANGE VULNER ABILITY IN SOUTH ASIA
Rudra Prasad Ghimire, Ph.D. Scholar, Tribhuvan University
Abstract:- South Asia has diverse range of climatically vulnerable conditions. Climate risk experiences have been seen much to the human lives together with water pollutions and land degradation which has directly affected the production of food items and resilience of ecosystem in the planet. The main aim of this enquiry is to figure out climate change risk and vulnerability in South Asia reviewing the various literatures. Climate risk is caused by rapid global warming. Mountain, Hill, plan area and sea zone ecosystem are threatened in South Asia. On the other hand, South Asia’s varied valuable ecosystem is vulnerable due to the rapid urbanization and deforestation. Every year desert is also growing, water level has been falling. Water is threatened by the temperature. The availability of fresh water is becoming seasonal. River’s water level has gone down. Coastal flooding incidence has affected all lives. The major part of concern is global warming borne climatically risky conditions such as population pressure, deforestation, pollution, frequent climate change, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity, water pollution, degradation ofriver and marine resources, energy depletion, new disease, natural disaster, cyclone, forest fire, melting glaciers and food uncertainty etc. Hence multiple issues created by climate change risks in South Asia. Management of green fund, protection of natural resources and settlement of demographic dividends could be the best way of climate change adaptation and mitigation.
Keywords:- Climate Change, Green Fund, Ecosystem, South Asia.
1. INTRODUCTION
South Asia region covers eight countries- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Maldives.
It is a part of the Asia and sub-continent of Indian Ocean. The total area of South Asia covers almost 5.1 million km2 (1.9 million mi2), and this is 11.51% of the Asian continent. The land mass of this region gives a ground for near 1.749 billion people that covers about one fourth of the world’s population (SACEP,2016).Markets for climate-friendly products and technologies are unlikely to meet such conditions as they are highly concentrated. Such concentration is even higher in particular segments of the industry (Sawhney, 2006).
Climate change impacts are going to be varied. In seasonally dry and tropical regions, crop productivity is projected to decrease for even a small increase in temperature (IPCC, 2007).
Fluctuations in monsoon and temperature affect the productivity of several crops grown in the region. In the Himalayan nations of Nepal and Bhutan, it is expected that increased severity and frequency of storms and flooding could aggravate the occurrence of landslides, which, in addition to the danger to life and property, would deposit sediments in agriculture lands or in irrigation canals and stream and contribute to
deterioration in the quality of agriculture lands and hence in crop production (Kelkar & Bhadwal, 2007).
Carbon labeling is a better alternative than promoting the concept of food miles to address the issue of carbon emissions in international trade (Mullar, 2009). Since the industrial revolution finance has been a powerful enabler of human progress. The purpose of the global financial system is to allocate the world’s savings to their most productive uses. When the system work properly, these savings are channeled into investment that raise living standards;
when it malfunctions, as in recent years, savings are channeled into real-estate bubbles and environmentally harmful project, including those that exacerbate human-induced climate change (Sachs,2014). Governments have already agreed to keep global warming below 20C, but have yet to take decisive action to create a low -carbon energy system (Sachs
& Du Toit,2015).
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
South Asia is not only the most populated region in the world but also densely populated (South Asia Regional Overview,2008).Climate change is the mother of all climatic hazards and extreme weather events, such as heat
Vol.03, Issue 12, December 2018, Available Online: www.ajeee.co.in/index.php/AJEEE waves, heavy rainfall and droughts, etc.
(WHO,2015). Climate change is drastic variations and shifts of weather conditions (moisture, cloudiness, precipitation) from warm and moist climate to cool climate due to external or in internal factors over different time scales (Singh 2009).
In 1970, a cyclone killed more than 300,000 lives in Bangladesh (BBS,2017).The frequency and intensity of droughts also increased in South Asia (Webster et al. 1998; PAGASA 2001; Lal 2003).Longer duration of heat waves was observed in South Asia region, especially in India (De & Mukhopadhyay ,1998).
Moreover, the increased frequency of intensive rainfall events along with some anthropogenic issues causes severe landslides , floods, and mudflows (Khan et. al.,2000; Shrestha et al.,2000;
Mirza,2002).Globally, South Asian countries are most vulnerable in terms of floods (UNDP,2004).
Since 1984–2017, Bangladesh has experienced seven severe floods and more devastating was in 2007 that affected 10,655,145 people (BBS,2017). In 2005 Mumbai faced more hazardous floods that led to a loss of over 1000 lives, and a total loss was more than US$250 million (IPCC,2007).The South Asia covers only 4.8% of the world’s land surface area but provides home for above 24% of the world’s population and growing at an alarming rate of 1.8% annually (Kakakhel,2012).The ice mass of the Himalayas is melting rapidly than the global average rate and creates great threat to this region.
Sea level rise emerged in the Bay of Bengal in 1947, and the rising rate is 1.4 mm and 3.9 mm per year in the southeast and south-central part nearest to the sea of Bangladesh (MoEF,2012).Irrigated cropland of Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan is severely affected by salinity -induced water erosion. Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan are suffering by another type of erosion, wind erosion due to desertification (UNEP,1997a). Increased industrial activities, vehicles, and brick kilns increase regional pollution over time, and GHG emission has risen in South Asia by approximately 3.3%
annually since 1990 (Khwaja et. al. 2012).
India is the highest air-polluting country in this region followed by Pakistan (Khwaja& Khan,2005).In Bhutan, forest fire is the main source for air pollution. In Nepal air quality is deteriorating with high levels of dangerous pollutants (Khwaja et.
al.,2012). In Sri Lanka key source of air pollution are motor vehicles, burning of domestic and industrial wastages, firewood, etc (Senarath,2003). In late 1991, four US corporations secretly mixed 1000 t of hazardous waste containing high levels of lead and cadmium into a shipment of fertilizer which was imported by Bangladesh, and one third of that toxic fertilizer was applied on farms (Leonard,1993).
In 1992, the South Asian countries imported only 15% of the US plastic waste. But in 1993, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan imported 53% of total US plastic waste deliberately (Leonard,1993).Investment will be needed in the short to medium term to make the power sector greener, by reducing emissions and switching to renewal energy (ADB, 2017).There are three possible broad applications of fintech to green finance: block chain, applications for sustainable development; block chain use-cases for renewal energy, decentralized electricity market, carbon credits, and climate finance, and innovation in financial instruments, including green bonds (Nassiry, 2018).
Climate change is a critical issue. Hence;
there is dearth of the climate vulnerability analysis of all south Asian countries. So this study will fulfill objectives of investigation.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study has revised the literatures of climate change vulnerability, climate issue, major roots and effect of climate change as major barriers of developmental activities. Therefore, in this research paper; sectoral review of various dimensions of ecosystem is tracked.This investigation is grounded on secondary information. Sothis study is qualitative in nature.
4. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION 1. Afghanistan
Afghanistan is a non-coastal country of South Asia with 652,000 km square land
Vol.03, Issue 12, December 2018, Available Online: www.ajeee.co.in/index.php/AJEEE surface area. It is a mountainous and
very waterless country of South Asia.
Agriculture is the principal source of occupation. Incessant drought and
degradation of its natural resources are impeding its future growth and development and creating it additional vulnerability to climate changes.
Table 1 Climate issues, causes, vulnerability in the areas, and effect of climate change in Afghanistan
Climate issues Majorroots Areas of Vulnerability
Effect of Climate Change
Soil degradation;
deforestation; loss of biodiversity;
overgrazing;
desertification; soil erosion ; air pollution; water pollution ; food security risks;
natural disasters
such as
earthquakes and droughts
Population growth;
increased demand for agricultural lands, fuelwoods, housing materials, etc.
Agriculture;
water resources;
ecosystems;
natural calamities;
human
health; and social
development
Water scarcity ; high temperature; reduced precipitation; increased evapotranspiration;
vulnerability of agriculture, wetlands and ecosystems to desertification ; food insecurity; duration and frequency of drought;
flash flooding from glacial melt ; increasing risk from malaria;
malnutrition and migration
2. Bangladesh
Bangladesh, the largest fertile delta landof South Asia. It is located between 20°34′ and 26°38′ north latitude and 88°01′ and 92°41′ east longitude (BBS 2017). It is surrounded by India on the west, north, and east, by Myanmar on the southeast, and by the Bay of Bengal on the south. The area of the country is 147,570 km2. Most of the country is low-lying comprising mainly the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. A total of 80% of the country is floodplain (Agrawala et. al.,2003). Mean elevations range from less than 1 m on tidal floodplains, 1–3 m on the main river and estuarine floodplains, and up to 6 m in the Sylhet basin in the northeast (Rashid,1991). Only in the extreme northwest, elevations are greater than 30 m above the mean sea level. The northeast and southeast portions of the country are hilly, with some tertiary hills over 1000 m above mean sea level (Huq and Asaduzzaman,1999).
Table 2 Climate issues, causes, vulnerability in the areas, and effects of climate change in Bangladesh
Climate issues Major roots
Areas of Vulnerability Effect of climate Change
Deforestation
; loss of biodiversity;
coastal degradation;
land
degradation ; soil erosion ; waste
generation;
pollution by municipal
Human pressure;
increased demand for timber;
unplanned marine- based tourism;
poaching;
sea level rise;
Agriculture; coastal
and marine
ecosystems; water resources;
fisheries; public health; natural disasters
Reduced crop production due to high temperature and sea level rise; damages to settlements, industries, and livelihoods in coastal areas; ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss in coastal and marine ecosystems; saline water intrusion into the freshwater and groundwater; increased incidence of vector-borne diseases; imbalanced climatic
Vol.03, Issue 12, December 2018, Available Online: www.ajeee.co.in/index.php/AJEEE Climate issues
Major roots
Areas of Vulnerability Effect of climate Change
and domestic waste;
limited access to potable water;
waterborne diseases; air and water pollution;
climate change
industrial and municipal waste disposal
events; threats to ocean; threats to food security, fishery, and livelihoods ; and coral reef bleaching
3. Bhutan
Bhutan is a landlocked country of South Asia. It is situated at the eastern end part of the Himalayas. The country is encircled by China to the north and by the country India to the south, east, and west. It encompasses dense forest and water resources. The country is considered as a reservation for valuable biodiversity and a typical for environmental stability. However, now days, climate change creates many risks to Bhutan. This country is more vulnerable to flash floods and landslides because of accelerated glacier melt.
Table 3 Climate issues, causes, vulnerability in the areas, and effect of climate change in Bhutan.
Climate issues Major roots Areas of
Vulnerability
Effect of climate Change
Soil erosion ; air pollution;
water pollution; scarcity of
drinking water;
deforestation ; solid waste disposal; climate change;
and glacial melt
Rapid
urbanization
Agriculture;
ecosystems and biodiversity; water resources; human health; and natural calamities
Agricultural yield reduction; forest area degradation; biodiversity and habitat loss; floods;
vector-borne and waterborne diseases
4. India
India is the largest country of South Asia and the seventh largest country in the world. The country containsvaluable biodiversity, geographical surroundings and varied climatic conditions from humid to arid that makes the land more vulnerable to the variousecologicalhitches.
Table 4 Climate issues, causes, vulnerability in the areas, and effect of climate change in India
Climate issues Major roots
Areas of
Vulnerability
effect of climate Change
Deforestation;
soil erosion and land degradation ; desertification
; overgrazing;
loss of
biodiversity ; air pollution ;
Urbanization ; industrial effluents;
emissions from vehicles and brick kilns;
unmanaged ecotourism;
Agriculture;
water resources;
coastal, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems;
human health;
Sea level rise ; increase of sea temperature; frequent and intensive floods , cyclones and droughts ; glacial melting; increased temperature; changes in precipitation patterns; floods; saline intrusion; heat waves; water- and airborne diseases ; decreased agricultural production; biodiversity
Vol.03, Issue 12, December 2018, Available Online: www.ajeee.co.in/index.php/AJEEE Climate issues Major
roots
Areas of
Vulnerability
effect of climate Change
surface water pollution;
arsenic contamination in
groundwater;
forest and agricultural land-use change;
demographic pressure;
climate change;
natural disasters such as floods , cyclones and landslides ; sea level rise;
glacial melt ; salinity intrusion
agrochemicals
; fossil fuel burning
urban area loss; and impacts on urban infrastructure, drainage, sanitation, etc.
5. Maldives
Maldives located in the Indian Ocean. It is a jewel like island country of South Asia which contains of coral reefs and hundreds of smaller islands. It is the smallest South Asian island country both in demography and land area. In terms of coral reefs, it is seventh largest in the ecosphere and ridiculous in biodiversity and aesthetic value. This country is highlyvisible to the hazards of extreme climatic conditions and sea level rise as well.
Table 5 Climate issues, causes, vulnerability in the areas, and Effect of climate change in Maldives
Climate issues Major roots Areas of Vulnerability
Effect of climate Change
Climate change ; sea level rise; saline water intrusion; coastal erosion;
groundwater depletion;
marine biodiversity loss;
air and water pollution ; waste generation; coral reef bleaching
Demographic pressure; marine- based tourism; sea level rise
Coral reefs;
coastal and marine ecosystems;
water resources;
disasters and hazards;
tourism;
public health;
social development
Ecosystem damages, loss of coral reefs;
salinity
intrusion in groundwater;
increased intensity and frequency of climatic hazards such as cyclones , flooding, and inundation of islands;
diseases;
disturbance in tourism; and
Vol.03, Issue 12, December 2018, Available Online: www.ajeee.co.in/index.php/AJEEE Climate issues Major roots Areas of
Vulnerability
Effect of climate Change
migration
6. Nepal
Nepal is one of the land locked country like other three landlocked countries in South Asia.
It is situated at the base of world’s highest mountains and surrounded by China to the north and India to the south, east, and the west. Its physiography ranges from very high elevations of the Himalayan to the Gangetic Plains. Agriculture is the main occupations of the country. This country Nepal is vulnerable to the climatic situations.
Table 6 Climate issues, causes, vulnerability in the areas, and effect of climate change in Nepal
Climate issues Major roots
Areas of Vulnerability
Effect of Climate Change
Deforestation ; soil
erosion and
degradation; water pollution ; air pollution; loss of biodiversity ; waste generation and disposal; climate change; ice cap melting; natural disasters
Rapid urbanization
; emissions from motor vehicles and industries;
increased demands for timber;
population growth;
lands conversion
Agriculture;
water resources;
terrestrial ecosystems and
biodiversity;
human health
Increased intensity of glacier lake outburst floods due to rapid glacial melt ; intensified scarcity of water; outbreaks of diseases ; agricultural production loss; glacial melt dependent ecosystems and biodiversity loss
7. Pakistan
Pakistan, the second largest country in South Asia, contains dry or cold climatic regimes. It is surrounded by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west, Iran to the southwest, and China in the far northeast. Similar climatic zones and geography differs across the country.
Near 60% of the total watershed area of the Indus basin lies within Pakistan’s territory. Key climatic changes events found in this area are like glacial melt, sea level rise, and drought
Table 7 Climate issues, causes, vulnerability in the areas, and effects of climate change in Pakistan
Climate issues Major roots Areas of Vulnerability
Effect of climate Change
Water
pollution ; seasonal scarcity of freshwater in natural resources; soil erosion ; coastal
habitat loss;
degradation in marine ecosystems;
natural disasters,
Urbanization ; industrialization
; wastes
disposal;
population pressure ; unplanned ecotourism;
mangroves depletion for aquaculture;
overfishing;
increased demands for timber and
Agriculture;
coastal zones;
marine and
terrestrial
ecosystems; water resources; land resources;
climatic events;
health and social development
Increased intensity and frequency of drought ; coastal erosion and salinity intrusion from sea level rise;
increased natural disasters;
changes of sea and atmospheric temperatures;
several flooding and future drying of water resources due to glacial melt; reduced soil productivity and fertility, reduced crop production; food and water insecurity; land-use changes; increased intensity
Vol.03, Issue 12, December 2018, Available Online: www.ajeee.co.in/index.php/AJEEE Climate issues Major roots Areas of
Vulnerability
Effect of climate Change
deforestation;
desertification
; biodiversity loss; climate change ; air and water pollution
fuelwoods;
hunting and poaching;
excessive use of agrochemicals
of drought and
desertification; longer exposure to water logging;
outbreak of heat-related and vector-borne diseases ; malnutrition; migration;
and conflict
8. Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is also ajewel like island country in South Asia and encircled by India and Maldives. The country is rich with Himalayas and coastal biodiversity. Climate condition of the country is fundamentally hot and humid. Part of the country exposed to long-term dry spells, and wide areas suffer from water scarcity. This country has in remarkablejeopardy by anticipated changes in climatic events in terms of temperature, frequency and duration of drought, intensity of rainfall and storm, floods and sea level rise.
Table 8 Climate issues, causes, vulnerability in the areas, and effects of climate change in Sri Lanka
Climate issues Major roots
Areas of Vulnerability
Effect of climate Change
Deforestation ; loss of biodiversity; coastal degradation; land degradation ; soil erosion ; waste generation; pollution by municipal and domestic waste;
limited access to potable water;
waterborne diseases;
air and water pollution; climate change
Human pressure;
increased demand for timber;
unplanned marine-based tourism;
poaching; sea level rise;
industrial and municipal waste disposal
Agriculture;
coastal and marine ecosystems;
water resources;
fisheries;
public health;
natural disasters
Reduced crop production due to high temperature and sea level rise;
damages to settlements,
industries, and
livelihoods in coastal areas; ecosystem
degradation and
biodiversity loss in coastal and marine ecosystems; saline water intrusion into the
freshwater and
groundwater; increased incidence of vector-borne diseases; imbalanced climatic events; threats to ocean; threats to food security, fishery, and livelihoods ; and coral reef bleaching
5. CONCLUSIONS
Urbanization, industrialization, and burning of fossil fuel along with many other factors are responsible for raising the CO2 level in the atmosphere and producing other greenhouse gases in many ways (Khwaja et. al.,2012). Raised CO2 and other greenhouse gases is the major contributor to the global climate change and resultant effects (IUSS,2002).
In order to manage this problem, green
investment can be mobilized for extreme adaptation and mitigation practices. Uses of solar energy and renewal energy are the best way to reduces carbons.
And greater awareness, green friendly infrastructure building and plantation is another idea that vast population should seriously undertake.
Human pressure is the rooted problem for rapid urbanization and industrialization, increased number of vehicles and fossil
Vol.03, Issue 12, December 2018, Available Online: www.ajeee.co.in/index.php/AJEEE fuel burning, pressurized land-use
changes, and rapid climatic changes with its adverse impacts (Bremner et. al.,2010;
Vanclay,1993; Wibowo & Byron,1999).
Development of social entrepreneurship, management of demography, migration and green fund mobilization to natural resource management is best way to escape from climate vulnerability.
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