Chapter 1: Introduction
2.12 Mindfulness Research with Children and Young People Who Have Autism
and negative self-attention, which then improves social skills and academic performance.
Iyadurai (2013) conducted a small scale exploratory study in a year four/five class and found that a teacher-led calm breathing programme based on mindfulness techniques led to significant improvements in behavioural difficulties, emotional symptoms,
conduct problems, peer problems and prosocial behaviours as measured by the teacher’s completed Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). There was no control group in this study and the changes noticed by pre and post measures may have been influenced by the teacher’s perceptions. Iyadurai (2013) states the importance of further research examining the use of mindfulness with children who have special educational needs.
decrease aggression in adolescents with conduct disorder (Singh et al., 2007). Singh et al. (2006) taught three parents a 12-week mindfulness course and concluded that mothers’ mindful parenting decreased their autistic children’s aggression, noncompliance and self-injury.
Singh et al. (2010) trained parents of children with ADHD and found that the mindfulness parent training enhanced child compliance and, when children were
subsequently given similar training, compliance increased even more markedly and was maintained during follow-up.
Singh et al. (2011) conducted an evaluation of the effectiveness of a mindfulness intervention for managing anger in adolescents with autism. The researchers trained the adolescents’ mothers on the ‘Soles of the Feet’ intervention, which they then delivered to their children for a 30 minute session each day for five consecutive days each week.
The intervention continued until the adolescents’ aggressive behaviour stopped for four consecutive weeks, therefore courses varied from 17 to 24 weeks. Alongside the
scheduled sessions, adolescents were encouraged to practice the techniques
independently. Data was collected from the adolescents, their siblings and parents about the adolescents’ behaviour and suggests a causal relationship between the mindfulness intervention and a reduction in aggression.
As with the previous studies conducted by Singh and colleagues, a small sample was used in the 2011 study. This can be unavoidable with specific populations such as children with ADHD, conduct disorder and autism, but conducting a quantitative evaluation with such small samples presents limitations in the generalisability of the findings as well as the internal reliability and validity, due to the effect of extraneous variables. However, the research did ensure inter-rater reliability by triangulating behavioural data from participants, siblings and parents. The change in the mothers’
interactions with their children could also have explained the positive impact on aggression, rather than the direct impact of the intervention on the adolescents. One strength of the 2011 study is that it was longitudinal, and found no episodes of physical aggression to occur during a 4-year follow-up. Therefore, the research suggests that
adolescents with ASD may successfully use a mindfulness-based procedure to control their aggressive behaviour over a sustained period of time.
Pahnke et al. (2014) investigated the impact of ACT skills training with 28 high- functioning adolescents with ASD (aged 13–21 years) using self-report and teacher- ratings at pre- and post-assessment and at a two-month follow-up. Improvements were reported in levels of stress, hyperactivity, emotional distress and pro-social behaviour.
This study demonstrates the effects of ACT training in the short-term, as found by the two-month follow-up and also triangulates the impact found by collecting data from adolescents and teachers. However, the research does not address what was effective for individual participants.
Russell (2011) wrote an article about his parental experience of using mindfulness with children who have ASD and comments on the improvements he observed in symptoms of autism such as emotional regulation, executive functioning, empathy, attention, anxiety and sleep routines, because of mindfulness mediation. However, this case study provides little empiricism, reliability or validity. No research studies have supported these claims directly.
Bögels et al. (2008) conducted a quasi-experimental study to evaluate the effects of child and parent mindfulness training for adolescents with externalising disorders. The sample was 14 adolescents aged 11-18 years old (average age 14.4 years old) with primary diagnoses of Conduct Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Pervasive Developmental Disorder and Asperger’s Syndrome. The adapted MBCT intervention was delivered for eight weeks to parents and adolescents in parallel for one and a half hour weekly sessions by qualified MBCT therapists. Pre and post intervention measures were collected examining personal goals, symptoms, quality of life and mindful awareness. Results were compared by t-test and found improvements in personal goals, internalising and externalising complaints, attention problems, happiness and mindful awareness. The study offers empirical evidence in terms of the quantitative data collected and the statistical significance of the results. The study is also comprehensive with respect to the areas of benefit examined.
The collection of data via the various Likert scale questionnaires could reduce validity,
because these tools have not been standardised for use with this particular participant sample. Therefore, the results could be affected by the participants’ levels of
understanding, as well as fatigue and boredom effects and demand characteristics due to the participants being familiar with the researcher.
At the time of writing, no further research was available regarding the use of mindfulness for children with autism.