127
11.1 Suggestions About Where We Can Go from Here
128
Sixth, as we have seen, an fMRI produces an image showing blood flow in the brain. This means it displays which area of the brain is being stimulated or acti- vated. However, this is an inference in that the blood flow is a reflection of increased neuronal activity. This is a reasonable assumption, but it still could be that the sim- ple one to one direct relationship may not be correct. There may be a two to one relation, etc. It could be that other things are happening in addition to the blood flow.
Neurosociologists need to find out about this.
Seventh, we have seen that the brain is plastic and sometimes is even compared to a bowl of jello. This means that it is able to change in many situations including different cultural environments. In short, different environments can produce quite different ways of brain functioning. Australian Aborigines, for example, have a remarkable ability to track animals and as well as people. This is a skill that was exploited by the European settlers who invaded their land. The invaders did not have such ability. However, Australian aboriginal children of either sex had this ability very early in their lives.
Another example of brain plasticity that was discussed was the London cabbies who took years to memorize the streets of London and developed enlarged hippo- campi in the process of that learning.
In closing, let me add further to Edelmans’ metaphor of “wider than the sky.”
Michael Chorost tells us in a widely acclaimed article that each cubic millimeter of tissue in only the neocortex, which is two thirds of the brain, contains between 860 million and 1.3 billion synapses. The total number of synapses in the neocortex range from 164 trillion and 200 trillion. Think then of the total number of synapses there are in the whole brain. An implication of this, at least to me, is that there is much more waiting to be discovered about the social human brain. We have just begun.
References
Davis, J. (2013). Persistent inequality: A neurosociological perspective. In D. Franks & J. Turner (Eds.), Handbook of neurosociology (pp. 333–348). New York: Springer.
Maldarelli, C. (2018, April 2). Scientists found a ‘new organ’ but it might not be what you’re expecting. Popular Science.
Parkinson, C. (2018). Similar neural responses predict friendship. Nature Communications, 9, 332.
Sperry, R. (1998). A powerful paradigm made stronger. Neuropsychologia, 36(10), 1063–1068.
11 Summary and Conclusions
129 A
Accounts, 2, 3 Acumens, 102
Affordances, 57, 88, 89, 97, 109, 125 Agency, 5, 6, 113–123
Aggression, 103, 104 Alcoholic, 102, 104
American Sociological Association, 2 Amodio, D., 67
Amygdala, 25, 102, 103, 110 Androgen hormones, 105 Anterior cingulate, 110 Anterior cingulate cortex, 12 Appropriateness, 108 Archaic Homo sapiens, 20–22 Arendt, H., 53
Aristotle, 2, 52, 53 Art, 23, 24, 28
Associative hypotheses, 85 Astonishing hypothesis, 8 Asymmetry, 103 Atomism, 84 Atomistic reduction, 8 Australopithecus, 20–21 Autism, 45–47
Autism spectrum disorder, 104 Autonomic nervous system, 67 Autonomic networks, 110 Axons, 9, 10
B
Bandura, A., 108 Baumeister, R., 4, 38
Beat gestures, 94 Begley, S., 11, 86, 87, 120 Bentley, A., 7, 57 Berntson, G., 4 Bonn, G.B., 114, 122 Bouba-kiki task, 26 Brain, 19–28 Brain-size, 102–105 Brain structure, 26, 28
British enlightenment idealists, 56 Broca’s area, 95, 97, 110
Brothers, L., 2, 4, 7, 13, 14, 41, 42, 44–48, 54
C
Cacioppo, J., 4 Cahill, L., 102, 103 Carter, R., 8, 69 Cerebral cortex, 103 Chalmers, D., 63 Chater, N., 109
Chicago pragmatism, 6–7 Chicago pragmatists, 57, 90, 92 Chimpanzees, 20
Choi, C., 23 Chorost, M., 128 Christian, J., 55, 57 Churchland, P., 85, 86 Cingulate cortex, 36–40 Cingulate gyrus, 43 Cognition, 11, 12 Cognitive psychology, 109 Cognitive unconscious, 65, 67
Index
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2019 D. D. Franks, Neurosociology: Fundamentals and Current Findings, SpringerBriefs in Sociology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1600-8
130
Cole, G., 102 Computer games, 39 Conditioning, 113, 114 Consciousnes, 61–64 Consistency, 108
Consistency requirement, 116 Cooley, C.H., 90, 91 Cooperate, 20 Copernicus, 14
Copy theory, 55, 56, 58, 87, 89 Corpus callosum, 3, 9, 103 Correspondence problems, 109, 121 Correspondence theory, 10 Cortical neurons, 25 Cozolino, L., 4, 34, 110 Crick, F., 8
Cro Magnon, 24
D
Damasio, A., 4, 6, 7, 11, 53, 54, 69, 70 Davidson, R.J., 36
Davis, J., 12, 13, 127 De Lafuente, V., 93 De Sousa, R., 53, 54
Default mode network (DMN), 36, 37 Defense mechanism, 66, 73–75, 78, 79 Dendrites, 9, 10
Denial, 66, 73, 74 Denisovans, 23–24 Dennett, D., 118
Depression, 32, 35, 36, 104, 105 Descartes, 62, 63
Determinism, 5, 6, 8, 11, 113–123 DeWall, C., 38
Dewey, J., 7, 57 Dijksterhuis, A., 109 DNA, 23, 24 DNA testing, 23
Dorsal anterior cingulate, 37 Dovido, J., 67
Drug dependent, 104 Dualism, 52–54, 56, 62 Dunbar, R., 44 Dyslexic, 104
E
Edelman, G., 4, 8, 11, 53, 67, 128 Eisold, K., 67, 68
Elias, N., 4 Eliot, L., 103
Embodied intersubjectivity, 83–100 Embodiment, 6
Emergence, 7, 8, 113, 119–120, 122, 123
Emergent, 126 Emirbayer, M., 57, 62 Emotions, 51–54, 58 Empathy, 84, 86, 96
Enlightenment empiricists, 51, 55, 56 Epilepsy, 3
Exaptation, 26, 28
Exclusive reductionism, 7–8 Exclusivity, 116, 117, 122
F
fMRI, see Functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI)
Franks, D., 3, 4, 8, 11, 67, 79, 87, 90, 98, 120
Free-will, 116–118, 122 Fried, I., 86
Frith, C., 69, 71 Fromm, E., 114, 126 Frontal cortex, 43, 46 Fuller, B., 57, 59, 126
Functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI), 14, 92, 94
G Galileo, 53 Gallese, V., 109, 110
Gazzaniga, M., 1–4, 6, 14, 40, 63 Geertz, C., 4
Gender, 102, 104, 105 Gerlach, C., 101 Gernsbacher, M.A., 86 Gibbs, R., 11 Gibson, J., 89 Giddens, A., 114, 122 Globius pallidus, 103 Gloor, P., 43
Glucocorticoids (GCs), 35 Goldman, A., 85 Goldman, B., 102 Goodwin, C., 94 Grazziano, M. (2013), 42 Greenfield, P., 95 Greenspan, S., 28 Gregory, S., 40 Guadalupe, T., 103
Index
131
H
Haile-Selassie, Y, 24 Halpern, D., 102, 104 Hammer, M., 24 Harari, Y., 20, 21, 24 Hard-wired, 102, 104, 105 Harlow’s monkeys, 33, 36 Hauk, O., 93
Herculano-Houzel, S., 25 Heyes, C., 84, 85 Hickok, G., 97 Higham, T., 23
Hippocampus, 25, 26, 102, 103 Hominids, 20
Hominin, 20–25, 28
Homo erectus, 19, 21, 22, 24, 88 Homo floresiesis, 21
Homo heidelbergensis, 22, 23 Homo sapiens, 20–26, 28, 104, 105 Hsu, D., 39
Hurley, S., 109 Hyoid bone, 27
I
Iacoboni, M., 4, 84, 87, 93–97 Iconic gestures, 94
Idealists, 56 Ideology, 101 Imitation, 107–110
Imitation mirror neurons, 110 Infant isolation, 34
Infants and choice in toys, 105 Insular, 37, 38
Intelligence, 25, 28
Intelligence quotient (IQ), 25 Intentionality, 61
Intentions, 85, 86, 89–91, 97 Interbreeding, 24, 28
Intersubjectivity, 40, 46–48, 62, 109, 110
J
Jarrett, C., 86 Jebel Irhoud, 22 Jenkins, R., 103
Johnson, M., 7, 10, 54, 58, 96, 98
K
Kalkhoff, W., 79, 80 Kangaroo care, 34 Kaplan, C., 12
Kihlstrom, J., 65 Kilpinen, E., 88 Koenigs, M., 43
L
Lakoff, G., 7, 10, 54, 58, 96, 98 Laughlin, R., 53
Leary, M., 38 Lebaron, C., 94
LeDoux, J.E., 10, 11, 25, 35, 97 Lewis, D., 92
Lexicon, 28
Libet, B., 114–116, 118, 122 Lieberman, M., 36–40, 44, 46, 47 Limbic system, 5, 9, 11
Linguistic turn, 6–7 Locke, J, 10 Lyman, S., 2, 3
Lyng, S., 11, 87, 90, 98, 120
M
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 14, 15 Makinodan, M., 34 Maldarelli, C., 127 Markova, I., 4 Marrolla, J., 67
Maryanski, A., 20, 21, 26, 28 Massey, D., 2
McCarthy, M., 104, 105 McClintock, M.K., 40 McNeil, D., 94
Mead, G.H., 6, 7, 11, 40, 87–94, 97, 98, 118–122
Medial frontal cortex, 86 Medial temporal cortex, 86 Meltzoff, A, 108
Meyer, K., 37
Midline thalamus, 38, 39 Milgram, S., 117 Miller, D., 119
Mirror neurons, 4, 7, 27, 57, 58, 83–98, 109, 110
Modern social behaviorism, 51, 52, 54, 57 Molnar-Szakacs, I., 95
Montague, R., 39 Moore, M., 108 Morpheme, 27, 28 Morris, C.W., 92
Motor cortex, 7, 11, 58, 83, 85, 87, 90, 91, 93–95
Index
132
Motor networks, 110 Motor neurons, 87, 94 Muhamel, R., 86 Murphy, R., 8 Myelinisation, 9
N
Neanderthals, 20, 22–25, 28, 104 Neander Valley, 23
Nelson, E., 38 Neural systems, 108 Neuroism, 2 Neurologist, 26 Neurology, 1
Neurons, 4, 7–9, 11, 14 Neuroplasticity, 11, 121–122 Neuroscience, 2–3, 5–8, 10, 12, 13, 15 Neurosociology, 1–5, 7, 12–13 Neurotransmitters, 9, 10 Niche, 28
Northrop, N., 55
O
Ogletree, S., 117
Ontological reductionism, 8 Opioids, 35, 39
Output channels, 9
P
Paabo, S., 25 Panksepp, J., 35, 38 Parkinson, C., 127 Parsons, T., 52 Peirce, C.S., 88 Perception neurons, 87 Periaqueductal, 38, 39 Persistent inequality, 12 Philips, E., 25 Phoneme, 27, 28 Physical pain, 32, 37–39 Pinker, S., 95
Plasticity, 9, 46, 128 Polanyi, M., 65 Politics, 68, 72, 76 Posterior occipital lobe, 56 Posterior parietal cortex, 110 Prefrontal cortex, 11, 12, 15 Primary sensory cortex, 110 Priming, 109
Priority requirement, 116, 117 Projection, 66, 75
Putamen, 103
Q
Qualia, 61–64
R
Ramachandran, V.S., 8, 26–28, 84 Rationalization, 66, 74, 77
Reductionism, 2, 7–8, 113, 119, 120 Relationalism, 56
Relativism, 56 Relevancy, 108, 110 Replacement theory, 24 Repression, 66 Richie, S., 101, 102, 104 Rizzolatti, G., 83, 84, 87–91,
97, 109 Role-taking, 85 Romo, R., 93 Ruigrok, A., 103
S
Sampson, E., 4 Scheff, T., 4, 68, 69 Schizophrenia, 102 Schizophrenic, 104, 105 Schwartz, J.M., 11, 120 Scott, M., 2, 3 Self-consciousness, 5, 7 Self-understanding, 73 Semiotic, 91
Sensory cortex, 43, 44 Sensory motor cortex, 90 Shah, N., 104
Shanker, S., 28 Shibutani, T., 5 Shulman, G., 36 Simulation theory, 85 Sinigalia, C., 84, 87, 89–91, 97 Sjoberg, E., 102
Social behaviorism, 51, 52, 54, 57, 87, 88
Social control, 5 Socialization, 102 Social pain, 32, 37–39 Social psychology, 5–6 Sociology, 1, 2, 7, 12
Index