These thinkers framed the discussions and discourse about the mission and limits of the nursing profession. The readers of this text are the agents who will shape the future of the discipline.
OUR THEORETICAL HERITAGE
Theory has become an integral part of the nursing lexicon in education, administration and practice. Members of the nursing discipline should understand its role in the development of nursing and in the delivery of high-quality, evidence-based nursing care.
ASSUMPTION, GOALS, AND ORGANIZATIONS
Pluralism in nursing theories is desirable and inevitable; therefore, an exploration of existing theories is essential for improving the usefulness of the theory and for continuing the development and advancement of the field. A critical review of the history of theoretical thinking will pave the way for the development of theories that further describe and prescribe nursing practice.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
In Chapter 10 I provide a discussion of the various models of analysis and criticism for evaluating the quality and effectiveness of theories. The remainder of part four is devoted to using the theory description, analysis, critique, and testing model to analyze the selected nursing theories.
ON A PERSONAL NOTE
REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
This type of scholarship seeks activities that enhance a deeper understanding of research processes in an effort to answer pressing questions of a discipline. This type of scholarship requires the integration of knowledge of best practices in achieving better outcomes (Shapiro and Coleman, 2000).
SCHOLARLINESS IN NURSING
A review of the nursing practice literature revealed a growing awareness of a stronger relationship between theory and practice. The definition of nursing provided in the policy statement recognizes several essential characteristics of nursing practice.
Norms of Scholarliness
In the social policy statement (ANA, 1995) one can see the influence of a number of theories from the 1960s and 1970s on the concepts chosen for inclusion, such as interaction, self-care and affiliation, as well as on the inclusion of the goals for promoting nursing theories. The prestige and power of those who provide the evidence that can prompt members of the discipline to accept and agree with concepts – the units of analysis that focus in the discipline – was advanced by Kuhn.
Tools of Scholarliness
The basic unit of analysis for progress became “the solved problems” in nursing (Laudan, 1981; Silva and Rothbart, 1984), rather than just confirmation and verification.
Indicators of Scholarliness in Nursing
For example, when considering the influence of the environment on health, the environment is considered to be the patient environment, the sociopolitical environment, the administrative environment, and the student environment. For example, in an innovative environmental study, Holzemer and Chambers (1986) found a significant relationship between faculty perceptions of environmental science excellence, available resources, student engagement, and faculty motivation and productivity.
NURSES AS SCHOLARS
Constructed knowers see all “knowledge as contextual, experience themselves as creators of knowledge, and value both subjective and objective knowledge strategies (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986, p. 15).” These knowers combine different ways of knowing and different voices ( including the silent voice). For them, “all knowledge is constructed and the knower is an intimate part of the known” (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986, p. 137).
Scholarship of Integration
REVISITING SCHOLARSHIP IN THE 21 ST CENTURY
Nurses who view practice as the essence of the field have always known that something is missing from this definition. We need to make our discipline more public and demonstrate its importance to the public's health and care.
CONCLUSION
What criteria, milestones, and outcomes should be used in nursing to evaluate
Boyer's expanded definitions of scholarship, the standards for evaluating scholarship, and the elusiveness of teaching scholarship. Wells (ed.), Proceedings of the fifth nursing science colloquium: Strategies for theory development in nursing: V.
THE DESTINATION: THEORY AND THEORETICAL THINKING
In a human science, theoretical thinking is also demonstrated when and if the researcher attempts to determine the significance of the research questions to the discipline of nursing as well as to society as a whole. Theoretical thinking helps to raise questions about the researcher as an agent of the research and to determine the meaning of the study for the researcher personally.
DEFINITIONS
Each of these activities is theoretical in nature and represents an essential component of theoretical thinking and theory building; each of these activities must be recognized as an aspect of participation in the work needed to develop theoretical nursing. Some of these decisions are based on theory; others can be the impetus for theoretical development.
Assumptions
These processes reflect the activities of theoretical analysis and development described in this book. By engaging in any or all of these processes, a clinician experiences theoretical thinking but may not be aware of the process, may not perceive it as such, or may not allow the theoretical process to develop enough to culminate in knowledge development.
Concept
Note the difference between describing the phenomena of what happens to individuals who travel from one time zone to another by describing their sleep disturbances, and the changes in their moods, eating habits, bowel movements and routines, and summarizing all those details through the concept of "jet lag". The latter is a more concise and a more efficient way of communicating the ideas involved in, and related to, jet lag. A named phenomenon or set of phenomena is a concept, and a concept can be further operationalized and is more susceptible to being translated into a research instrument.
Domain
Epistemology
Evidence-Based Practice
Ontology
Among these are the description of the nature of theoretical formulations as they exist, an analysis of the qualities of beings and postulations about relationships (Burkhardt and Smith, 1991). Ontology as a concept has been used to describe the nature of theory development and analysis (Rawnsley, 1998), and has been used to dialogue about the nature of nursing (Reed, 1997) and the differences between viewing nursing as an innate human being. the welfare process and its service orientation (Bryant, 1998).
Paradigm
An ontological analysis of a conceptualization is an analysis of the nature of its existence, the categories it encompasses, and the relationship between those categories and what they mean. But in nursing we use ontology to mean an examination and critical analysis of the very nature - the core - of beings, relationships and concepts.
Parsimony
It is the discipline that provides the logical means to analyze the nature of basic and fundamental categories (Grossman, 1983). Ontology has been referred to as a science, a theory and/or a specific conception (Gracia, 1999; Jacquette, 2002).
Phenomenon
Philosophy
Praxis
Science
Tautology
Teleology
Theoretical Frameworks
Theory
Nursing Theory
The criteria for the selection of the various labels (model, paradigm, science, theory and framework) are not always completely clear. There is limited support that the use of one label over another has helped to differentiate the type of knowledge developed and may have managed to create more ambiguity for both novices and experienced.
TYPES OF THEORIES
Nursing provides for self-care needs only until the client or significant other is able to provide self-care.
Definition of Theories by Level of Abstraction
Situation-specific theories focus on specific nursing phenomena that reflect clinical practice and are limited to specific populations or to a particular field of practice. Therefore, their scope and the questions driven by them are limited and include the context.
Definition of Theories by Goal Orientation
Theories developed to understand and explain human processes in health and disease are pure or fundamental theories. Theories developed to achieve control, promotion, and change are nursing practice theories or prescriptive theories (Crowley, 1968).
THEORY COMPONENTS
In summary, all theories used in nursing to understand, explain, predict, or change nursing phenomena are nursing theories, regardless of whether they are developed from other theories, other paradigms, other disciplines, nursing experiences, diagnoses, nursing processes, or nursing practices, and whether they are developed by nurses. If we are to distinguish between different types of theory, then such a differentiation is meaningful only in terms of levels and goals, not in terms of the source of the theory.
USES OF THEORY
Theory and Research
Theory and Practice
We are more accepting of the importance of patients' and nurses' experiences and of the different meanings of experiences in the development of nursing knowledge. The particular mode—the a priori form by which experiences are shaped—is a synthesis of something that is out there and something that is constructed by the person experiencing it (Copleston, 1964).
BARRIERS TO THEORY DEVELOPMENT
Therefore, in order to accelerate the development of theoretical knowledge, we must stop and ask why the journey was long and complicated. These can be analyzed as both negative and positive forces in the development of nursing theory.
Human Barriers: Nurses as Nurses
Such a subculture does not provide a fertile field for the growth and development of curiosity and challenge to the status quo, both so necessary for scientific inquiry and scholarship. Practitioner orientation—the educational movement to become nurse practitioners and nurse anesthetists—also contributed to building barriers to theory development.
Human Barriers: Nurses as Women
There is little doubt that many of the issues facing nursing stem from the feminine image of nursing and the idea of nursing as a profession for women, especially in societies in which women are placed in secondary status (Dachelet, 1978; Heide, 1973; Sandelowski, 2000; Wren, 1971). Many of the characteristics of women have been considered contrary to scientific creativity and productivity.
Human Barriers: Nurses as Theorists
These questions may present different dialogues and answers depending on the context of that decade. Polit and Beck (2008) reviewed research publications during 2005–2006 and reported that approximately 75% of study participants were female.
Knowledge Barriers
The decline in the number of nursing theory-based programs, which may have started as an exercise in intellectual rebellion, may actually be a sign of progress. Theory-based research continued to suffer, which was reflected in the limited number of nursing theory-based theses (Spear, 2007).
Conceptual Barriers
However, when theory-based curricula were first introduced, faculty's focus on curricula may have caused them to lose sight of the reason for theory, which is quality nursing practice and patient care. Reasons for unwarranted emergency room visits were recorded as noncompliance, diagnostic problems in the emergency room, or inability to communicate signs and symptoms.
Research Enterprise as a Barrier
In this case, premature closure of the phenomenon of recurrence prevented careful examination of the phenomenon within the context of the immigrant experience and the cultural meanings associated with heart problems. When we view the world through the biomedical model, we tend to see signs, symptoms, and biomedical antecedents.
RESOURCES TO THEORY DEVELOPMENT
Nurses also fall prey to a fourth type of perceptual block, one related to paradigms that have guided us for many generations and make us see what we expect to see. Although both are essential in describing theoretical clinical practice, they also tend to prevent us from seeing a phenomenon from a fresh perspective.
Human Resources: Nurses as Nurses
Therefore, it is only natural that these purebred individuals address central issues in the field by engaging in the much-needed processes of theory development and the organization of nursing knowledge. Finally, nurses' experiences as experts in nursing practice were formally recognized in the 1980s as a more significant source of nursing knowledge (Benner, 1984; Benner and Wrubel, 1989).
Human Resources: Nurses as Women
Intuition, the 'curse' of women's abilities, was recognized in the 1990s as a force for women's potential. Even though women may have fallen into the “compassion trap” in the past because they were always available as helpers.
Knowledge as a Force and a Resource
Essential components of the new paradigm represent a shift to include humanitarianism, holism, the incorporation of sociocultural content, perceptions of subjects of research, subjects and researchers collaborating in the research process, and a qualitative approach. Its novelty stems more from social acceptance, as the public becomes more aware of ways to develop knowledge and demands participation in the process.
Conceptual Resources
The energy once expended by those defending components of a paradigm that did not conform to the dominant scientific perspective can now be channeled from the creativity of reaction to the creativity of action. A new world view emerged, a view that even changed physics from the mechanistic concepts developed by Descartes and Newton to a more holistic and ecological view (Capra, 1983).
Other Forces for Theory Use and Development
As gender, ethnic, and sociocultural diversity increases in nursing, what might
What changes would you like to see in the future that you believe could have an impact on the advancement of theoretical thinking in nursing. In what ways did the wave of the nursing shortage in the 1980s and in 2000 support or limit theoretical thinking.
STAGES IN NURSING PROGRESS
In addition to delineating these topics, the analysis of the theoretical literature provides us with specific milestones that may have helped in the development of theoretical nursing. Progress in the development of theoretical nursing can be defined in six stages: practice, education and administration, research, theory, philosophy and integration.
Stage of Practice
However, each of these stages actually sharpened and clarified the dimensions necessary to establish the scientific aspects of the discipline, promoting or leading to the scientific development of the discipline of nursing. Each stage helped nurses come closer to identifying the domain of nursing, defining its mission, and defining its theoretical basis.
Stage of Education and Administration
In a remarkable way, the theoretical ideas of the pioneering American nurse theorists were born in this phase. A focus on education and teaching may therefore have paved the way for the further development of theoretical nursing.
Stage of Research
Thereafter, there was a steady increase in philosophies and theoretical dialogues, as well as a cumulative trajectory of research productivity. During this stage, as in other sciences, researchers emphasized scientific syntax—the process rather than the content of research (Kuhn, 1970).
Stage of Theory
Levine (1967) and Orem (1971) proposed guidelines for nursing therapy that preserve the integrity of the person, the psychology, the social connection – in short – the whole person. However, it was a Platonic ideal rather than a general description of the scientific research task.
Stage of Philosophy
Because none of the theories addressed all aspects of nursing, nurses avoided, ignored, or rejected nursing theory. These questions reflected more on the values and importance of developing knowledge and the implications of that knowledge for nursing practice, and less on the structure and rationale of knowledge (Bradshaw, 1995; Silva, Sorrell, & Sorrell, 1995).
Stage of Integration
A third characteristic of this step is the evaluation of various aspects of theoretical nursing by members of the discipline - nursing clinicians, teachers, administrators, researchers and theorists. A fourth characteristic of this stage is the attention paid by members of the discipline to the strategies of knowledge development that are consistent with the shared assumptions of the discipline and that consider the conditions of holism, patterns, experience, and meaning (Newman, 1995).
Stage of Interdisciplinarity
The fifth characteristic is the involvement of members of specialized fields in the development of theories that relate to the phenomena of this special field. An example of such discourse is the reevaluation of the definition of the client in the nursing literature and the consistency of these definitions with the assumptions of the field (Allen, 1987).
Stage of Technology and Information Systems
A sixth characteristic is the critical reappraisal of the philosophical and theoretical underpinnings that have guided the definitions and conceptualizations of the central concepts of the nursing domain, as well as the methodologies used to generate knowledge. A seventh characteristic of this phase is the creative ways in which nursing academic institutions are becoming involved in patient care, either through academically led clinics (nursing clinics) or by developing clinically based faculty positions.
MILESTONES IN THEORY DEVELOPMENT
Prior to 1955—From Florence Nightingale to Nursing Research
1955–1960—The Birth of Nursing Theory: The Columbia University Teachers College Approach
Abdellah's doctoral dissertation in 1953 at Teachers College, supervised by Hildegard Peplau, focused on determining covert aspects of nursing problems. Johnson's (1959) analysis of the nature of science in nursing was undoubtedly a milestone in drawing attention to the potential of nursing as a scientific discipline and in promoting the development of its unique knowledge base.
1961–1965—Theory: A National Goal for Nursing
During this period, the position of the Yale School of Nursing, influenced by the Columbia Teachers College graduates who became faculty members at Yale, began to be formulated. Although the work of the faculty at the Yale School of Nursing may have profoundly influenced nursing research in the United States in the 1960s, its influence on theory was not as significant at the time.
1966–1970—Theory Development: A Tangible Goal for Academics
The conceptualization of nursing by these writers was therefore not a milestone that prompted the development of the next level of theory. Rather, it was the American Nurses Association (ANA) position paper—which defined nursing as care, treatment, and coordination, and identified theory development as the most important goal for the nursing profession—that may have influenced to the further development of nursing theory (ANA, 1965).
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE (Continued )
Questions from this era were related to what types of theories nurses should develop rather than to the nature of the substantive content of those theories. Dickoff and James (1968), philosophers of education, addressed metatheoretical concerns that focused on types of theories and content of theories.
1971–1975—Theory Syntax
Nurse theorists no longer questioned whether nursing needed theory or whether or not theory could be developed in nursing; questions of this period focused on what theory means (Ellis Walker, 1971), what the main components of theory are (Hardy, 1974; Jacox, 1974), and ways to analyze and critique theories (Duffey and Muhlenkamp). , 1974). The use of theory for curriculum development has further increased academic nursing awareness of the importance of theory and available nursing theories.
1976–1980—A Time to Reflect
Discussions of what constitutes theory and the identification of theory syntax seem to be the way to achieve that goal. Just as the ANA recognized the importance of theory development during the previous period, the National League for Nursing (NLN) not only recognized theory but also made theory-based curriculum a requirement for accreditation.
1981–1985—Nursing Theories’ Revival: Emergence of the Domain Concepts
Towards theoretical nursing: stages and milestones 77 characterized by a greater clarity in the relationship between theory and research than between theory and practice.
1986–1990—From Metatheory to Concept Development
1991–1995—Middle-Range and the Beginning of Situation-Specific Theorizing
They are theories that are more clinically specific, theories that reflect a particular context and may include plans for action. They are theories that are developed to answer a set of coherent questions about situations that are limited in scope and limited in focus.
1996–2000—Evidence Means Research, Not Theory
For example, conceptualizations of patterns of responses to transitions between health and illness among Middle Eastern immigrants could be developed from research study results, clinical cases, and nurses' experiences in caring for this population (Meleis, Isenberg, Koerner, Lacey, & Stern, 1995). An example is work focusing on Middle Eastern immigrants (Afghans, Iranians, Egyptians, and Arabs), supported by similar work on these populations in their home countries, which helps illuminate pre-immigration patterns of behavior and responses and helps provide historical and sociocultural context. context for immigrants' responses in their new country.
2001–2005—Diversity in Thought: Linking Theory and Practice
2006–2010––Nurses Empowered: Evidence and Technology as Resources
Perhaps the tensions—the challenges faced by members of the discipline—should be seen as an integral part of nursing's theoretical progress, and the discipline of nursing and its scientific basis could be seen as a process rather than an end result. These are the discipline's perspective, domain, and goals, which are reflected in how the discipline of nursing is defined.
NURSING PERSPECTIVE
The discipline of nursing encompasses the content and processes associated with all the roles nurses play, including administrator, teacher, policymaker, clinician, and consultant (Banks-Wallace, Despins, Adams-Leander, McBroom, & Tandy, 2008). Of necessity, too, these experiences drive the kinds of analyzes and interpretations of progress that are made, as well as the development of the discipline.
Nursing: A Human Science
These questions call for a robust discussion by the readers of this chapter as well as within our literature. Do the curricula in nursing and educational programs that prepare future nurses, a distinct nursing perspective.
Nursing: A Practice-Oriented Discipline
Therefore, clients' experiences and responses to health and illness are often viewed within the context of the client's life relationships, culture, goals, and daily experiences. Nurses tend to know their patients differently and more deeply than other healthcare providers (Jenny and Logan, 1992).
Nursing: A Caring Discipline
Many theorists have considered the development of caring relationships as a defining aspect of the nursing perspective for several decades (Newman, Smith, Pharris, & Jones, 2008). If care is an integral part of the nursing aspect, it may also be an integral part of the content of the theories developed (Newman, Sime, & Corcoran-Perry, 1991) or a guiding force for the strategies by which theories are developed. and the research is designed (Feldman, 1993).
Nursing: A Health-Oriented Discipline
As a moral imperative, Gadow (1985) and Watson see the fundamental essence of nursing as maintaining the dignity of others. Although health may be the goal of care for Newman (1986) or viewed as a process of expanding consciousness, and for Jones and Meleis (1993) as a process of empowerment, these analyzes provide greater support for a more dominant view of nursing as understood from a medical perspective.
DOMAIN OF NURSING KNOWLEDGE
Through the process of nursing care, nurses uncover health strengths, mobilize these strengths and support the available resources, so that the patient can take control and fight their illness or injury. Nurses have made major contributions to the development of the domain of nursing through a focus on person and environment (Heitkemper and Bond, 2003), on behavioral patterns and on health and lifestyle.
Domains: A Definition
The language used, the concepts defined and the questions explored and investigated are shaped by the structure of the discipline. That is, a domain is revised and developed through the wisdom and expertise of members of the discipline, through accumulated research and theory, and through knowledge developed in other disciplines.
A Nursing Domain
Research designs and methodologies also help to identify and develop components of the domain of nursing. Others question the compatibility of the holistic mission of nursing and the reductionist approach determined by the use of the nursing process (Barnum, 1987).
DEFINITION OF NURSING
In this chapter, the nursing perspective, the domain of nursing knowledge and the definition of nursing are given. Neglected conflicts in the discipline of nursing: Perceptions of the importance and value of practical skills.
SPINOZA ON KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT
This chapter discusses and analyzes the sources and resources of the theory that are essential to the development of the theory. The conditions proposed to facilitate the resources and resources for theory development are necessary but not sufficient for theory development.
SOURCES FOR THEORY DEVELOPMENT
Each was important in advancing the discipline of nursing by illuminating a different component of the discipline. Each source should continue to be consciously sought in the future to advance nursing theory.
Extant Nursing Practice
Existing nursing practice as a source of theoretical development was revisited in the late 1980s, advocating for storytelling from the practice arena. This review and the authors' conclusions provide support for other views in the field about the complexity of nursing knowledge and for practice as a source for theory development.
Biomedical Model
They also used their previous experiences, including what had or hadn't worked in the past, as well as intuitions. The challenge that nursing will continue to face in the future is the development of theories that reflect the integration between patient-centered, environmental, and biomedical models of care.
Nurses’ Experiences
The biomedical model (or paradigm) as a source for knowledge development in nursing has regained prominence with the increasing number of nurses using it extensively in their practice. Existing nursing practice and nursing experience as sources of phenomena for theoretical nursing are different, but related.
Roles
Similar findings on the importance of personal practice knowledge in nursing practice are reported in other studies (an example is Mantzoukas and Jasper, [2008]). The source of this theory is existing nursing practice, by nurses who promote comfort to the different populations, and nursing experience, by nurses who observe the different populations' comfort responses to the care provided.
Basic Science
Therefore, a theory of adult cognitive functioning in acute situations may be the result of a developmental paradigm (Maier, 1969), but it focuses on nursing by explaining, describing and predicting nursing phenomena, or by proposing interventions writing for clinical responses related to these phenomena, such as as responses to health/disease situations. Examples of theories that evolve deductively from other paradigms, but that attempt to address nursing phenomena and nursing problems are Johnson's theory (based on a systems paradigm), Roy's theory (based on adaptation, systems and interaction theory) and theory of Rogers (using systems and systems). development paradigms) (see Chapters 11 to 13).
Ideal Nursing Practice
The Nursing Process
CLASSIFICATIONS OF NURSING DIAGNOSIS, NURSING INTERVENTIONS, AND DECISION MAKING
Theories of decision-making processes that are more congruent with the nursing perspective can be developed either by observing existing practice of nursing or from decision-making theories in other disciplines. However, if they are considered and used in practice as static, procedural and terminal, this can become a limitation on the development of the theoretical aspects of the discipline of nursing.
Concepts Clarified and Classified
The Iowa Intervention Project resulted in a three-level taxonomy of nursing interventions, with the highest level containing six domains, the second level containing 26 classes, and the third level consisting of 357 interventions. All of these classification systems have been driven by the practice of nursing and, if viewed as provisional, dynamic, and evolving, could stimulate the growth of the knowledge base for the discipline of nursing and inspire ongoing validation (Grobe, 1990; Fagerstrom, Rainio, Rauhala, & Nojonen, 2000).
Nursing Research and Nursing Theory
Combined Sources of Ideas
RESOURCES FOR THEORY DEVELOPMENT
Being Theoretical
Although ideas abound, some of which drive theory development, ten conditions can aid in the development of theories, and each of these conditions can be subjected to further investigation to support or refute their importance in generating theory. Whether conscious of it or not, a person with an idea that is potentially productive may have an intuitive ability and furthermore accepts intuition as a significant asset in the development of ideas.
Theoretically Supportive Environment
Clinicians with such embodied clinical knowledge should be given the opportunity to further develop these ideas by working with others experienced in developing theories that relate to practice. Conditions for theory development are therefore: the presence of a group of individuals who strongly believe in the significance of theoretical thinking for nursing practice and who have the conditions outlined in the previous text and who also qualify for this.
IDENTIFYING DOMAIN PARADOXES
Only two of the paradoxes that have previously been the subject of debates have been analyzed. These paradoxes symbolize a significant period in the development of the theoretical aspects of the nursing discipline.
KNOWING FROM THE RECEIVED VIEW TO POSTMODERNISM VIEW
The art of nursing is closely linked to the realities of the practice situation (Timpson, 1996). This history could be used to the advantage of the discipline and its clients by using it as a perspective for developing gender-sensitive theories.
TRUTH: FROM CORRESPONDENCE TO INTEGRATIVE VIEW OF TRUTH
Which of the two options should nursing follow - the methodological view or the philosophical starting point. Compare and contrast the advantages of the different ways of knowing discussed in this chapter.
The First School of Thought: Needs
Judging by the number and caliber of international students who graduated from this institution, Columbia Teachers College may have had a significant impact on the development of theoretical nursing in other countries as well. The extent of this university's influence on the development of schools of thought and on the development of nursing education and practice nationally and internationally has yet to be explored.
A Second School of Thought: Interaction
Although some of the interaction theorists have continued to address the needs of the patient, all of the interaction theorists have. The nurse cannot separate herself as an individual from the act of care - the nurse is an integral part of care.
The Third School of Thought: Outcomes
Levine Four principles guide the conception of man (energy, personal, structural and social integrity) and his organismic responses (fear, inflammation, stress, sensory). Nursing is about maintaining energy and integrity. Outcome theories provide nursing with a well-articulated conception of the human being as a user of nursing care and nursing as an external mechanism of regulation (Table 9-19).
A Fourth School of Thought: Caring/Becoming
Parse Nursing helps people become by choosing ways to co-create their own health and find meaning in situations. Watson Mental and spiritual growth for human beings (nurses and clients), finding meaning in their own existence and experiences.
THEORIES’ PRIMARY FOCUS
Among the interactionists are the existentialists, who focus on the support and development of human potential. Care-oriented theorists focus on the personal development or transformation of both the nurse and the patient (Parse, 1995; Watson, 2002).
AREAS OF AGREEMENT AMONG AND BETWEEN THEORISTS AND SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
Identify and discuss metaphors about nurses that reflect the different theories
A critical appraisal of evidence before and during its translation into practice, and a critical appraisal and evaluation of theories before and during their use in practice or research, are activities that nurses have always engaged in. Quality assurance, as well as coherent research programs, require critical analyzes and assessment of theories.
SELECTING THEORIES FOR UTILIZATION
Fawcett also distinguishes between the evaluation of long-range and middle-range theories and provides similarities and differences in the types and level of questions to be asked of the two levels of theories. The criteria reflect the level and sophistication of our knowledge at different stages of the development of nursing as a scientific discipline.
