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JTET
http://penerbit.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/jtet ISSN 2229-8932 e-ISSN 2600-7932
Journal of Technical Education and
Training
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
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penerbit.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/jtet
Effect of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneurial Intention among University Students
Mohammed Sani Abdullahi
1*, Nadeem Khalid
2, Umair Ahmed
3, Elsadig Musa Ahmed
4, Alhassan Musa Gumawa
11Department of Business Administration,
Yusuf Maitama Sule University Kano, Kano State 3220, NIGERIA
2Executive Education Center,
KIMEP University, Almaty, 050010, KAZAKHSTAN
3Department of Innovation and Technology Management, Arabian Gulf University, BAHRAIN
4Faculty of Business,
Multimedia University, Melaka 75450, MALAYSIA
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30880/jtet.2021.13.03.005
Received 30th October 2020; Accepted 26th March 2021; Available online 30th September 2021
1. Introduction
The role of entrepreneurship in economic development, creativity, firm formation, job creation, and wealth creation has been emphasized in the entrepreneurship literature (Otache et al., 2019). As a result of perpetual and increase in economic issues, particularly joblessness, the notion of entrepreneurship has become vital in recent decades (García-
Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of entrepreneurship education (EE) through attitude toward behaviour (ATB), subjective norm (SN) and perceived behavioural control (PBC) on Entrepreneurial intention (EI) among University students in Nigeria. The study unit of analysis comprises of students from the three public universities in Kano State, Nigeria, namely, Yusuf Maitama Sule University Kano (YUMSUK), Bayero University Kano (BUK), and Kano University of Science and Technology (KUST) Wudil that participated in entrepreneurship education programme (EEP) in 2017/2018 academic session. A questionnaire was used to collect data from the 345 target respondents while correlation and regression analysis was used as the data analysis method to test the study hypotheses. The findings revealed that attitude toward behaviour (ATB) and subjective norm (SN) has a significant effect on EI while perceived behavioural control (PBC) has no significant effect on EI. The study suggests that university management should capitalize on EEP as a vehicle to improve student’s attitudes towards EI. The study contributes to the literature by investigating the effect of EE on EI among University students in Nigeria. The study is one of the few studies that was conducted in Northern Nigeria, particularly in the three public universities in Kano State. Thus, the findings of this study act as a strategic tool for university management to design their institutional policies in a way that captures an early phase of offering EEP to create knowledge of entrepreneurship for students in order to sharpen their attitude toward behaviour and subjective norm toward EI.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship, vocational, education, intention, subjective, behavioural, attitude
Rodríguez et al., 2017). Nations are encouraged to raise entrepreneurship rates to foster social and economic well-being.
It is well established that a career in entrepreneurship provides substantial opportunities for individuals to gain financial freedom and support the economy by contributing to job development, creativity, and economic growth. Today's students are tomorrow's potential entrepreneurs which may demonstrate why a growing number of universities in the United States and other countries are offering entrepreneurship programs and courses. Besides that, the factors that influence student’s intentions to become entrepreneurs, as well as the relationship between EE and students’ entrepreneurial behaviour and intentions are poorly understood (Ahmed et al., 2017). In most developed countries, EE has grown significantly in recent decades (Otache et al., 2019). Nabi et al., (2017) stated that the amount of money invested in entrepreneurship programs continues to rise. The role of entrepreneurship as a driver for economic growth is recognized by policymakers, and hence support or endorse instruments such as EE to boost entrepreneurial activities (Karimi et al., 2016). The belief in the beneficial effects of EE is universal and by launching new EE programs, the initiators are following conventional wisdom (Westhead & Solesvik, 2016). The issue of EE among university students, as well as the promotion of entrepreneurship activities, are becoming increasingly important factors that require attention on a global scale (Khalid et al., 2019). This is true in emerging markets, where unemployment is high (International Labour Organization, 2011). Entrepreneurship has gained worldwide attention because of the impact of EE in countries such as the United States, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, to name a few. Passaro et al., (2018) noted that more educational institutions now offer a wide variety of entrepreneurship programs and training activities. The program appears to be having an impact on students' entrepreneurial interest and desire to start their own business. The entrepreneurship challenges that students face become the subject of academic studies all over the world.
Entrepreneurship is a critical component of national economic development, and university students are a significant feeder pool for a country's entrepreneurial supply. Entrepreneurial practices have a positive impact on the growth and prosperity of a nation (Lee et al., 2019).
For decades, Nigeria economy has been heavily reliant on the oil and gas sector, which accounts for over 90% of the country's foreign revenue. However, oil revenue has dropped by nearly 60% in recent years (Otache et al., 2019). Initially, the cash flow from the oil and gas sector caused governments to ignore the growth of other sectors which might contribute to or benefit Nigerian entrepreneurs. As a result, Nigeria's overdependence on oil has disheartened most entrepreneurs from devoting their energy and time to other sectors of the economy which might contribute to the country's diversification. However, beginning with the 2007/2008 academic year, the Federal Ministry of Education directed that EE should be included in the curriculum of higher education institutions through the National Universities Commission, National Board for Technical Education, and National Commission for Colleges of Education (Akhuemonkhan et al., 2013). Many economies around the world have grown, developed, and industrialized because of EI, which have played and continue to play a significant role. In Nigeria, entrepreneurship activities have underperformed expectations due to a variety of issues ranging from entrepreneur’s attitudes and practices to environmental factors, government uncertainty, and frequent policy changes among others (Passaro et al., 2018). The need to train students for managing or coping with contemporary jobs and living environments has increased the value of EE. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to look into the effect of EE on EI among Nigeria university students.
2. Literature Review
The intention is the key element in understanding human actions and attitudes (Wardana et al., 2020). Intention can indeed be described as a person's desire to carry out a deliberate plan or make a conscious decision (Saraih, 2019). It has been claimed that there is no consistent concept of EI; in previous research, the word has been used to refer to starting a new business or being self-employed (either by starting a new business or buying an existing one). EI, according to Mohamad et al., (2021) and Badri & Hachicha (2019), is the exploration of knowledge and other tools in order to start a business, and also EI is a personal dedication to a new business. Similarly, Doğan (2015) claimed that EI is a good predictor of engaging in entrepreneurial activity that could lead to the development of a new business. Patricia and Silangen (2016) stated that EI is the ambition or ability to start or own a venture. EI refers to a person's desire to start an entrepreneurial business in the future (Westhead & Solesvik, 2016). According to Passaro et al., (2018) EI is a person's self-admitted conviction that they want to start a new venture and actively intend to do so in the future. Similarly, Malebana (2014) described EI as a state of mind that necessitates personal attention and experience to succeed in starting a new business. According to Tsai et al., (2016) intention serves as a stepping-stone for executing entrepreneurial actions.
Many behavioural traits, such as starting a new venture are voluntary, and intentions have been found to be the best predictor of these behaviours (Entrialgo & Iglesias, 2016). Ahmed et al., (2018) argued that intentions are the map of our future or potential behaviour or self-prediction. EI is not a straightforward yes or no question that can be answered.
Rather, it is a degree or level of intent in performing businesses that can vary from low, moderate to high (Tsai et al., 2016). Individuals who wish to be entrepreneurs could set themselves apart from the competition by purposefully sourcing the capital needed for the business performance. As a result, intentionality serves as a driving force behind entrepreneurial decisions and behaviour, and also it direct someone's focus or attention and decides the life experiences they have, and the decision to become an entrepreneur and start a business necessitates careful preparation and a deliberate thought process (Kalyoncuoğlu et al., 2017).
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Entrepreneurship education can be seen from a variety of perspectives. It is known as any pedagogical program or process of learning for entrepreneurial skills and attitudes, which includes the development of certain personal characteristics. As a result, it is not solely concerned with the immediate establishment of new companies or businesses (Mahendra et al., 2017). EE is defined as a method of instructing or educating individuals on how to successfully start, engage in, and operate ventures, thus contributing to or boosting the economy (Bae et al., 2014). EE can be described as the identification of opportunities, the mobilization of resources in the face of risk, and the creation of a business venture (Purwana & Suhud, 2017). According to Adelaja et al., (2018) EE is formally structured dissemination of entrepreneurial ideas, skills, and knowledge used by individuals to start or develop a venture. The act of teaching student’s entrepreneurial skills, insight and competencies they need to start their own venture or business is known as EE (Michelle & Tendai, 2016). EE is defined as a collection of structured teachings that train, educate and inform learners that are interested in starting a new venture (Bae et al., 2014). Efrata et al., (2016) stated that EE is the process of equipping people with the ability to identify commercial opportunities as well as the intuition, self-esteem, expertise, and skills to take advantage of them. EE is intended to instil an entrepreneurial culture in students and, as a result, reorient or realign them away from cultivating a mentality of finding paying jobs after graduation. It aims to develop full-fledged entrepreneurs (Kim, 2017). Students who are exposed to or introduced to EE are much more likely to pursue entrepreneurial paths or occupations than students who are not introduced to EE (Yasir et al., 2019). Furthermore, a study has demonstrated that EE has a significant and observable impact on an individual’s entrepreneurial perceptions, intentions and behaviours (Kisubi et al., 2021). EE significance extends beyond providing undergraduate students with entrepreneurial skills, competencies and knowledge for them to become self-employed graduates in the future; it also improves their marketability or employability in the job market (Wardana et al., 2020). More specifically, EE assists graduates in developing the creative, leadership, creative, logical and problem-solving skills that employers demand of their workers in order to improve job efficiency (Otache et al., 2019). Furthermore, EE is critical in assisting youths in developing entrepreneurial skills, attitudes and behaviour, as well as understanding entrepreneurship as a career opportunity and developing optimistic EI (Vodă & Florea, 2019). Furthermore, EE aids in addressing the issue of graduate unemployment that so many countries are facing today (Wardana et al., 2020). Therefore, based on this study EE has three dimensions including ATB, SN and PBC which constitute the study aims and there are explain them as well.
According to Ajzen and Fishbein (2000), an individual's overall feeling of favourability or un-favourability toward different stimuli objects is referred to as an attitude. If they have opinions about something or an object, they will naturally develop an attitude about it. Individuals' attitudes toward the object are indeed a result of their assessments of the attributes, which are linked to each belief. When people discover that an object is linked to a specific attribute, their feelings about that attribute become linked to the object. Attitudes are shaped by a person's entire set of meaningful beliefs as well as the evaluations linked with those beliefs (Santoso, 2021). Sagiri and Appolloni (2009) stated that a person's behaviour is primarily determined by his or her attitudes and beliefs and that these attitudes and beliefs play a significant role in deciding an individual's actions. Individuals’ expectations or perception of their ability to perform or conduct specific tasks increase the probability of their attitude which become an intention and then behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). Ajzen (2002) described ATB as the level or extent to which an individual has a positive or negative assessment or analysis of the behaviour or conduct in question. ATB is characterized by Li (2007) as an individual's desire to be self- employed. Xavier et al., (2009) described ATB as the degree to which people believed there were good opportunities for them to start a business or the magnitude of their commitment towards high-status entrepreneurs. Individuals who learn about their referents' businesses are more likely to believe it is legitimate (Appiah-Nimo et al., 2018). According to Souitaris et al., (2007), the disparity between the personal understanding of being self-employed and the expectation of working as an employee influences entrepreneurship behaviour.
The perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the desired behaviour is referred to as SN, also known as a social norm (Ajzen, 1991). Family, colleagues, and society all exert pressure on one's decision to become an entrepreneur (Otache et al., 2019). SN is defined by Santoso (2021) as the social pressure to perform the action of being monitored. These are considered as the individual's beliefs, values and norms that influence individuals such as family, teachers, friends and other entrepreneurs that have a significant impact on the individual. This influence shapes and drives the emergence or emergence of an individual's entrepreneurship intentions (Ajzen, 2001). SN is an individual's perception of how other people feel about a particular behaviour (Tsai et al., 2016). Due to the location of research and the dimension of national culture, there are differing views on the SN in evaluating EI. uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity, individualism versus collectivism and power distance are four dimensions of national culture identified by Hofstede (2001). The culture of individualism vs. collectivism is considered. In a collectivist culture (Japan), SN has a greater effect than in an individualistic culture (Britain) (Azjen, 2001). In a study of East Asian and Anglo-Saxon countries, Begley and Tan (2001) discovered that individualist cultures are less likely to be influenced by SN than collectivist cultures. Aside from these factors, locus of control influences the importance of SN in predicting EI.
SN appears to play a smaller role in intention for people who have a deep internal locus of influence (Ajzen, 2001). The SN is often influenced by family background toward EI (Ebong et al., 2017). According to Pasic and Sestic (2016), more research is required to resolve the discrepancy between SN and EI.
Perceived behavioural control is linked to the principles of self-efficacy and control values or beliefs. Self-efficacy relates to one's trust in one's ability to accomplish a specific task (Otache et al., 2019). On the other hand, control
beliefs relate to an individual's perception of factors that can help or hinder them from performing a specific behaviour (Otache et al., 2019). As a result, PBC refers to the degree to which an individual believes he or she is capable of performing a specific behaviour (Otache et al., 2019). According to Ajzen (2015), control beliefs about the existence of factors (such as business opportunities, resources, role models, entrepreneurial support and social encouragement from others) that can promote or hinder behaviour success is known as PBC. PBC refers to people's perceptions about how easy or difficult it is to conduct a certain behaviour (Lián & Chen, 2006). It is believed that it reflects people's past experiences and anticipates obstacles (Ajzen, 1991). According to Ajzen (1991), PBC and intention fairly reflect the individuals' actual control in a situation. PBC is a component of perceived viability and control in starting a business (Leroy, Johan, Luc & Jonas, 2009). Control beliefs are beliefs about existing factors that disrupt and facilitate behavioural success as well as their perceived strengths (Leck, Barbara & Allan, 2009). Furthermore, PBC refers to a person's perception or beliefs of how convenient or difficult it would be to act in a certain way (Sanchez, 2011). The perceived behavioural control is influenced by two factors: how opportunities are perceived and how the perceived opportunities are handled. People or entrepreneurs will display actions that signal their intentions if their perceived self-interest involves a reward and coincides with SN. The Control system of the presumed opportunities has an indirect impact on entrepreneur behaviour (Leck et al., 2009). The PBC consists of internal control elements that influence personal skills such as decision-making, problem-solving, innovation, leadership, and know-how, as well as external control elements that change depending on the context or situation, such as the venture climate, financial sources and government support. Both internal and external Belief’s influence behaviour. A person's perception of seeking financial resources to start a venture, for example, will be regarded as PBC (Leck et al., 2009).
2.1 The Theory of Planned Behaviour
The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is the foundation of this research (Ajzen, 1988, 1991). The TBP was developed by Ajzen (1991), and at the same time, the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) inspired the TPB (Ajzen, 1991). The TPB is a theory that has been used in the social and behavioural sciences to explain a variety of phenomena, and also it explains people's deliberate actions, especially in the context of entrepreneurship (George &
Ernest, 2017). The argument states that an intention to perform a behaviour explains the behaviour. The TPB is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) which states that an individual's intention to perform a given behaviour or action is based on the person's ATB, SN, and PBC of the behaviour (George and Ernest, 2017). The TPB establishes a connection between intention and behaviour (Santoso, 2021). The theory proposes that people’s deliberate behaviours are indeed a result of ATB, SN and PBC. Although the TPB does not predict or forecast actual behaviour but however, it predicts intention and has a clear correlation between intention and behaviour (George and Ernest, 2017). As a result, EI is a predictor of entrepreneurial behaviour (Otache et al., 2019). It has been suggested that the higher the ATB, SN, and PBC, the greater the individual's intention to engage in a particular behaviour (Appiah- Nimo et al., 2018). Thus, it can be deduced from the TPB that the more optimistic students' ATB, SN, and PBC are toward their EIs, the more likely they are to engage in entrepreneurial action or behaviour. Various empirical research was conducted by Mahmoud et al., (2020), Santoso (2021), Saraih et al., (2018), Appiah-Nimo et al., (2018), Otache et al., (2019) used the TPB to illustrate and anticipate people's EIs and behaviours.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
Therefore, this theory has provided a positive link with the study variables that provide direction to the study. The theoretical framework is developed in line with the evidence available. Figure 1 shows the effect of the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).
Fig. 1 - Conceptual framework Perceived
Behavioural Control
Entrepreneurial Intention Entrepreneurship
Education Subjective Norm
Attitude toward Behaviour
44 2.3 Hypotheses Development
2.3.1 Attitude toward Behaviour and Entrepreneurial Intention
Fini et al., (2010) narrated that attitude is just what someone feels about something which can be an ideology, a brand or an object that can be related to feeling. Krueger et al., (2000) described this precedent as an individual's desires and attempts to develop new value in established businesses by taking entrepreneurial opportunities or carrying out entrepreneurial actions. An attitude towards the act is characterized as "a favourable or unfavourable assessment of actions by an individual" and is influenced by perceptions about the probable outcomes of the actions (salient perceptions) and the assessments of such outcomes (Meijer et al., 2015). Thus, individuals immediately adopt a behavioural mindset (Saraih, 2018). The TPB implies that people develop significant behavioural attitudes to have positive consequences, and negative behavioural attitudes are associated with unfavourable consequences (Ajzen, 1988). Therefore, empirical studies conducted by Mahmoud et al., (2020), Otache et al., (2019), Saraih (2018), Appiah et al., (2018), Dohse Ebong et al., (2017) confirmed that ATB has a substantial effect on EI, while research conducted by Pasic and Sestic (2016) discovered an inverse outcome which revealed that ATB has no substantial effect on EI. Their result is guided by TPB (Ajzen, 1991).
Therefore, based on the above evidence and findings, the hypothesis was developed:
H1: ATB has a significant effect on EI.
2.3.2 Subjective Norm and Entrepreneurial Intention
Subjective norm shows the social elements that have an individual influence (Fini et al., 2012). SN integrates an individual's beliefs about the magnitude in which others feel that the individual should or should not participate in the behaviour (Yakasai et al., 2015). Normative attitudes or beliefs are the fundamental determinants in the situation of SN.
Normative attitudes or beliefs involve the probability that the performance of a given action is accepted or disapproved by influential groups or individuals (Bagozzi, 1992). SN is assumed to assess the social pressure on individuals to perform a given action or not (Yakasai et al., 2015). Furthermore, this kind of norm appears to contribute quite weakly to intention (Armitage & Conner, 2001), for individuals with high levels of internal control locus (Liñán, 2008), then those with a high levels behaviour orientation (Bagozzi, 1992; Liñán, 2008). Therefore, empirically studies conducted by Santoso (2021), Otache et al., (2019), Patricia and Slangen (2016) revealed that SN has a substantial effect on EI. Similar studies carried out by Ebong et al., (2017) and Pasic and Sestic (2016) revealed that SN has no substantial effect on EI.
Their result is guided by TPB (Ajzen, 1991). In line with the above outcomes, the hypothesis was established.
H2: SN has a significant effect on EI.
2.3.3 Perceived Behavioural Control and Entrepreneurial Intention
The third indicator of intention in TPB is PBC which upon to be the belief of individuals of their capacities to perform certain behaviour predicted by the perception of an individual's consequences of performing the action or behaviour (Yakasai et al., 2015). In the context of developing a new firm, the value of PBC lies in its predictive ability as it represents the assumption that the person will indeed be able to control his/her behaviour (Linan, 2008). Self-efficacy factors can also influence EI (Lee et al., 2011). Self-efficacy is the judgement of an individual about his/her ability to conduct a targeted action (Lee et al., 2011). This self-efficacy or presumed control of action refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of conducting the action and is presumed to represent previous experience and also expected impediments and obstacles (Ajzen, 2005). Bandura (1982) stated that the factors for shaping efficacy judgements involve hands-on knowledge of enactive mastery, vicarious learning, and emotional excitement. Lee et al., (2011) indicated that previous research described self-efficacy as a major contributor to EI, either explicitly or implicitly through perceived viability (Krueger et al., 2000). According to Ibrahim et al., (2015) PBC can improve behavioural prediction. Therefore, empirical research conducted by Santoso (2021), Otache et al., (2019), Appiah et al., (2018), Pasic and Sestic (2016) and Ibrahim et al., (2015) revealed that PBC has a substantial effect on EI, their results are contrary with the study of Ebong et al., (2017) which revealed that PBC has no substantial effect on EI. Their result is guided by TPB (Ajzen, 1991). The preceding hypothesis was developed based on the above studies.
H3: PBC has a significant effect on EI.
3. Methodology
A survey design was used in the present research, and other empirical studies used a similar research design (Abdullahi et al., 2021; Nuhu et al., 2018; Abubakar et al., 2015). The unit of analysis focused on student’s that participates in entrepreneurship education programme (EEP) in the 2017/2018 academic session from the 3 public universities in Kano State, Nigeria which comprises Yusuf Maitama Sule University Kano (YUMSUK), Bayero University Kano (BUK), and Kano University of Science and Technology (KUST) Wudil. The study target population
amounted to 14,446 respondents which involved 3,400 respondents from YUMSUK, 6,600 respondents from BUK, and 4.446 respondents from KUST. In this study, a simple random and stratified sampling approach was used which allows each respondent in the population to have an equal chance to be selected as a subject in a sample and allows the researcher to divide the study sample representing each stratum of the study population without any bias of disfranchising any factor in the population. A sample size of 345 students (respondents) from the target population was obtained via Yamane (1967) formula for sample size determination. After the sample size is known 81 students, 158 students and 106 students from YUMSUK, BUK and KUST make up the sample size respectively. A questionnaire was as an instrument for data collection from the target respondents and a total of 345 questionnaires were distributed to the target sample students, and the complete questionnaires were filled and returned successfully. Therefore, they were no missing data or outlier despite data cleaning and screening was carried out. Based on that the research proceeded with 345 valid questionnaires amounted to a return rate of 100% for the final estimate of the research hypotheses. Furthermore, a preliminary analysis was conducted, and regression analysis were also used in the current study to evaluate the research hypotheses that were all performed through SPSS version 21 software.
3.1 Measures
The research questionnaire was split up into two parts. Part one includes the participant’s profile. Part two contains the measurement items of the study variables: ATB, SN, PBC, and EI. The study instrument was adapted from previous studies. Therefore, EI was assessed with five adapted items from Liñán and Chen (2009) and Leong (2008), ATB was assessed with five items adapted from Sagiri and Appolloni (2009), SN was assessed with five items adapted from Dohse and Walter (2011), while PBC was assessed with five adapted items from Liñán and Chen (2009) and Dohse and Walter (2011). All measurement items consist of 20 items, and all are centred on a Likert scale of 5 points varying from 1=strongly disagreed-5=strongly agreed. The study carried out content validity where 3 experts in the field render suggestions for the perfection of the questionnaire, and a pilot test was also carried out with 30 samples recommended by Johanson and Brooks (2010). The pilot test Cronbach’s Alpha result indicate that EI has 0.958 value, ATB has 0.921 value, SN has 0.708 value while PBC has 0.895 value which ensures that all the instrument in the construct has high internal consistency which are above the recommended threshold score of 0.70 (Hair, 2010). As a result of having reliable data, the researcher proceeds with the study analysis.
4. Data Analysis 4.1 Response Rate
This section discusses the response rate. Table 1 indicates the questionnaire distributed and returned. Table 1 indicated that 345 questionnaires have been distributed and the same 345 have been returned and considered valid or accurate. Therefore, 345 questionnaires which are equal to 100% make up the total questionnaire distributed and returned as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 - Response rate
Description Number Percentage
%
Total number of distributed questionnaires 345 100%
Number of completed and returned questionnaires 345 100%
Valid questionnaire 345 100%
Source: Field Survey
4.2 Demographic Analysis
Table 2 offers information on participant’s demographic profiles. The Table began with the participant’s gender.
The participants are divided into males and females. The male participants are 191, which is equal to 55.4% and the female participants are 154, which is equal to 44.6%. Therefore, the data revealed that most participants are male, and this means that in the context of the EEP they were more male than female. Table 2 often provides information about participant’s age which revealed that most participants are below 30 years of age. This means that most of the participants who have taken the EEP are young people. Table 2 further posed various levels of participants as regards marital status which revealed that most of the participants are not married. Table 2 also provides information concerning the respondents' institutions, whereby most of the participants are indeed from BUK. Finally, the level at which EEP is offered in the focused institutions is illustrated in Table 2. Thus, it shows that EEP is offered at levels 300 and 400, and most of the participants took the course at level 400 as shown in Table 2.
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Table 2 - Participants profile
Variable Label Frequency Percentage %
Gender Male 191 55.4
Female 154 44.6
Total 345 100
Age 30 year below 276 80
31-40 60 17.4
Age 41-50 09 2.6
51-Above 00 00
Total 345 100
Marital Status Single 260 75.4
Married 75 21.7
Widow 03 0.9
Divorced 07 2.0
Total 345 100
Institution YUMSUK 81 23.5
BUK 158 45.8
KUST 106 30.7
Total 345 100
Level 100 00 00
200 00 00
300 108 31.3
400 237 68.7
Total 345 100
Source: Field Survey
4.3 Factor Analysis
The constructs survey was evaluated using factor analysis. The appropriateness of such test has been subject to the use of the sampling adequacy measure of Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) and the sphericity test of the Bartlett. The KMO significance score varies from 0-1 while 0.6 was suggested as the minimum value for successful factor analysis and the Bartlett test is high and substantial (p<0.05) to be deemed suitable for the factor analysis (Hair, et al., 2010).
Hence, the test outcome of this research by the KMO and Bartlett is above the recommended limit, then factorability is regarded as possible. Items with factor loads > 0.3 will indeed be accepted as a factor, as it is considered as a threshold to fulfil the minimum standard for structural analysis (Hair, et al., 2010).
The outcome of the EI factor analysis in Table 3 demonstrated that they were no deleted items and therefore, all items were loaded to a single factor with an eigenvalue of more than 1.0. 77.462% of the total variance explained (TVE) is obtained from the single factor. The outcome of the ATB factor analysis in Table 3 indicated that no item was removed, and all the items were loaded to a single factor with an eigenvalue of more than 1.0. 72.105% of the TVE is obtained from a single factor. The outcome of factor analysis for SN in Table 3 indicated that none of the items was deleted and all the items were loaded to a single factor higher than 1.0. 54.758% of the TVE is obtained from a single factor. The outcome of PBC factor analysis in Table 3 revealed that no item has been removed and all the items have been loaded to a single factor with an eigenvalue of more than 1.0. 62.472% of the TVE is obtained from a single factor.
Table 3 - Factor analysis Items Factor
Loading
Components Eigenvalue % of Variance
KMO Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity
Significance
Entrepreneurial Intention
EI1 0.848
1
EI2 0.883
EI3 0.909 3.873 77.462 0.876 618.068 0.000
EI4 0.914
EI5 0.845
Attitude toward Behaviour
ATB1 0.840
1
ATB2 0.889
ATB3 0.848 3.605 72.105 0.863 480.572 0.000
ATB4 0.838
ATB5 0.829
]Subjective Norm
SN1 0.700
1
SN2 0.826
SN3 0.738 2.738 54.758 0.807 210.925 0.000
SN4 0.729
SN5 0.701
Perceived Behavioural Control PBC1 0.615
1 PBC2 0.726
PBC3 0.856 3.124 62.472 0.794 384.996 0.000
PBC4 0.869 PBC5 0.855
Note: EI= Entrepreneurial intention; ATB= Attitude toward behaviour; SN= Subjective norm; PBC= Perceived behavioural control.
4.4 Reliability Result
After conducting factor analysis, a reliability test was performed to determine the presence of internal consistency of the items. The outcome in Table 4 indicated that the study constructs satisfy the threshold value of 0.70 as suggested by Hair et al. (2010). Therefore, the result indicated that EI has the highest internal consistency.
Table 4 - Reliability statistic
Variable No. of Items Cronbach’s Alpha
EI 5 0.926
ATB 5 0.903
SN 5 0.789
PBC 5 0.848
Note: EI= Entrepreneurial intention; ATB= Attitude toward behaviour; SN= Subjective norm; PBC= Perceived behavioural control.
4.5 Correlation Analysis
Table 5, demonstrated the correlation assessment obtained across all constructs with a 2-tailed significance test to determine Pearson's correlation coefficients. The connection between two or more factors was evaluated by correlation.
The coefficients of association vary from -1 to + 1 which is an ideal adverse and positive association, and the decision of the statistical outcome is based on a 5% (0.05) significance level (Sekaran & Bougie 2010). Based on the consequence in Table 5, all the predicting variables are significantly correlated with EI at a p-value below the 0.05 limit. The Pearson correlation outcome revealed that the power of the predictive variables’ correlation with the EI is accurate and appropriate for this research. Therefore, H1, H2 and H3 was supported.
Table 5 - Pearson correlation
EI ATB SN PBC
EI Pearson Correlation 1
Sig. (2-tailed)
ATB Pearson Correlation 0.796** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
SN Pearson Correlation 0.657** 0.686** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000
PBC Pearson Correlation 0.918** 0.795** 0.751** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000
Note: EI= Entrepreneurial intention; ATB= Attitude toward behaviour; SN= Subjective norm; PBC= Perceived behavioural control. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01
4.6 Multicollinearity Analysis
Multicollinearity is conducted to verify the level of association between the IV's (Hair, et al., 2010). Therefore, multicollinearity analysis was conducted in this study to determine the tolerance and the VIF. Hair et al., (2010) stated that if the VIF exceeds 10 and the tolerance value is less than 0.10, it is suggested that the multicollinearity issue exists.
Therefore, Table 6 below revealed that there is no multicollinearity issue between factors as the tolerance value for each
48
variable is greater than 0.10 and the VIF value is less than 10 indicating that the factors are not associated and does not influence one another.
4.7 Regression Analysis
The standardized path ratio shows whether the effect direction is either positive or negative while the t-value evaluates whether this effect is substantial (Hair, et al., 2010). Table 6 presents the regression paths for the suggested model; the regression model is defined as follows:
EIit = β0 + β1ATBt + β2SNt + β3PBCt + et (1)
EI= 0.374 + 0.693β1 + 0.252β2 + 0.063β3 + ε (2)
Entrepreneurial intention is the DV and EE (ATB, SN, and PBC) is the IV. Table 6 revealed that the study model R2 is 0.659 while the adjusted R2 is 0.652. This means that EE (ATB, SN, and PBC) can predict 65.2% of the EI value.
Similarly, the F-statistical value was (99.193, p<0.000), the P-value is lower than 0.05 which revealed that the study IV and DV were best defined by the model. However, the result in Table 6 below revealed that hypothesis 1 is significant with an output of (β=.693, t=9.175, p<0.000). Hypothesis 2 was significant as well with a value of (β=.252, t=2.770, p<0.006), while hypothesis 3 was insignificant with a value of (β=.063, t=.959, p<0.339). This showed that the effect of ATB and SN on EI is substantial. Hence, hypothesis 1 and 2 was supported while hypothesis 3 was rejected.
Consequently, it can be agreed that ATB and SN have substantial effects on EI, while PBC has no effects on EI among University students in Nigeria.
Table 6 - Multiple regression result Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
Collinearity Statistics Model
B
Std.
Error Beta T Sig. Tolerance VIF
(Constant) 0.374 1.217 0.307 0.759
ATB 0.693 0.075 0.630 9.175 0.000 0.469 2.130
SN 0.252 0.091 0.189 2.770 0.006 0.477 2.097
PBC 0.063 0.066 0.060 0.959 0.339 0.567 1.763
R 0.812
R2 0.659
Adj. R2 0.652
F-Statistic 99.193 Significance of F. 0.000 a. Dependent Variable: EI:
b. Predictors: (Constant), ATB, SN & PBC.
Note: EI= Entrepreneurial intention; ATB= Attitude toward behaviour; SN= Subjective norm; PBC= Perceived behavioural control.
5. Discussion and Conclusion
In this research, the first hypothesis suggests that ATB has an effect on EI. Therefore, ATB has a substantial effect on EI based on the research finding. Consequently, the research finding is compatible with the studies of Mahmoud et al.
(2020), Otache et al. (2019), Saraih (2018), Appiah et al. (2018), Ebong et al. (2017) which revealed that ATB has a substantial effect on EI. This implies that ATB is directly related to EI, and also it implies that a rise in ATB would boost EI among University students in Nigeria. However, the research finding has an inverse outcome with the research of Pasic and Sestic (2016) which discovered that ABT has no substantial effect on EI. This implies that an increase in ATB will not increase EI among University students in Nigeria. The second hypothesis suggested that SN has an effect on EI.
The study outcome revealed that the effect of SN on EI was substantial and positive. This finding is consistent with studies of Santoso (2021), Otache et al. (2019), Patricia and Slangen (2016), Saraih (2018) and Ibrahim et al. (2015) which found that SN has a substantial effect on EI. This implies that the higher the SN of the students, the higher their EI. However, the research finding is incompatible with the conclusion drawn by Ebong et al., (2017), Pasic and Sestic (2016) which discovered that SN has no substantial effect on EI. This implies that SN would not boost or encourage EI among University students in Nigeria. The third hypothesis stated that PBC has a significant effect on EI. However, the research outcome revealed that PBC has no substantial effect on EI. The research finding is compatible with the outcome of Ebong et al., (2017) which revealed that PBC has no substantial effect on EI. This means that PBC will not encourage students of Nigeria university to have the mindset toward having the intention to become entrepreneurs or start a business of their own. Furthermore, the rise in PBC will not result in a rise in EI. However, the result is contrary to the studies of (Santoso (2021), Otache et al., (2019), Appiah et al., (2018), Pasic and Sestic (2016) and Ibrahim et al., (2015) revealed
that PBC has a substantial effect on EI. This implies that an increase in PBC will automatically boost and encourage EI among University students in Nigeria.
Based on this study results and discussions above, it can be deduced that EE and EI is an essential idea to be adopted by any student who wants to excel and attain their entrepreneurial goals and objectives. This research aims to investigate the effect of EE on EI among University students in Nigeria. The research outcome revealed that ATB and SN has a substantial effect on EI, while PBC among University students in Nigeria has no favourable and substantial effect on EI.
It was clear that students EI and career advancement are very important. Therefore, the university management should improve EE by focusing on ATB and SN with regards to EE, with that the EI of students will increase, however, if the management fails in such aspect it may lead to low EI among the students. EE programs mostly focused on theoretical and practical aspects of entrepreneurship toward achieving an optimum result. Entrepreneurship has a significant position in the world's rapidly evolving socio-economic situation, and entrepreneurs play a significant part in helping the growth of a nation as they assist to decrease the alarming rate of unemployment, poverty, social ills among others. This research offers a helpful understanding for universities and other students of higher learning to know how personal behaviour affects their desire for becoming an enterprise person. University management and policymakers should therefore be involved in an early phase of offering EE to create knowledge of entrepreneurship for students in order to sharpen their ATB and SN toward EI. EEP instructors should design and improve the framework of the entrepreneurship course to be proactive enough and to be more practical-oriented rather than theoretically oriented in order to improve the interest of the students in entrepreneurship. For example, entrepreneurial activities or programs and workshops that can improve ATB and SN of students should be structured in order to allow students to manage their own businesses and acquire more business knowledge. With that, the students will have the intention to set up their own businesses and become self-employed if the stated suggestions are well utilized. Finally, future researchers should come up with mediating variables that can strengthen the result like student satisfaction, and at the same time expand the present study scope, with that a more robust result can be achieved in the future.
Acknowledgement
For their cooperation and support, the author would like to thank the management of Yusuf Maitama Sule University Kano (YUMSUK), Bayero University Kano (BUK), and Kano University of Science and Technology (KUST) Wudil, as well as their students who participated in this research.
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