Give open access to the work and thus allow "fair use" of the work in accordance with the provision of the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), especially for educational, scientific and research purposes. This would not have been possible without the guidance and mentorship of the institutions' academic experts as well as the insights of my fellow students.
L IST OF A PPENDICES
A BSTRACT
R EVIEW OF L ITERATURE
- Urbanization
- Urban Sprawl
- Urban Densification and Compact Cities
- Urban Green Spaces
She argued that the modernist urban planning concept, such as that of Robert Moses and Le Corbusier, “overlooked and oversimplified” the complexity of human interaction in diverse communities. According to (Russo & Cirella, 2018) “the modern compact city is identified as a high-density, mixed-use pattern.” According to their research, this characteristic contributes to a form of functional urban design that supports sustainability, highlighting the importance of ecosystem services.
R ATIONALE
S COPE AND L IMITATIONS
- Physical Profile
- Climate
- Socioeconomic Profile
Metro Manila is the smallest administrative region of the Philippines and the most densely urbanized (see Table 1). Overall, the poverty line in Metro Manila is higher than the national average at 14.23% in 2021.
M ETHODOLOGY
01Remote Sensing
Images downloaded from the Earth Explorer website were selected from available Landsat 5TM, Landsat 7 ETM+ and Landsat 8 spacecraft with 116 and 50 as track and row scenes (see Table 6) with all Landsat images used having the same 30 meters. resolution. QGIS version 2.63.3 is the main GIS software used in the study that handles and processes vector and raster data.
02LULC Classification (a) Pre-Processing
In an urban context, this image shows a deep contrast between vegetation, water and built-up land cover classes. a) Google map image (b) False color combination Source: (a) (Google., n.d.) (b) False color composite (GIS Development Team, 2022). According to (LaGro, 2005) "Land cover classification and mapping is an integral step in understanding Earth's biophysical systems." This study aims to look at the physical process of change between the natural and the built environment within an urban environment, that is, a Permeable, impervious and water surfaces were chosen a simplified classification system, after the Macro Classes were chosen. First, land cover must describe the entire observable (bio)physical environment and therefore deals with a heterogeneous set of classes.
Second, two distinct land cover features, which have the same set of classifiers to describe them, may differ in the hierarchical arrangement of these classifiers to ensure a high mappability;. By adapting the set of classifiers to the most important land cover features, all combinations can be made without having a tremendous number. Moreover, clouds do not belong to any type of LULC, but they are widely present in the available Landsat images.
Water in the study area consists of water from rivers, lakes, and ponds, as well as parts of the city along Manila Bay. The decision to use these land cover classes was based on the work of (Puplampu & Boafo, 2021) and a report published by (JICA, 2010). Unsupervised classification is used to group pixels into land cover classes using the Semi-Automatic Classification Plugin (SCP).
03Accuracy Assessment
Although the computer processes the clustering without much user intervention, the resulting classes are all individually reclassified by the user by grouping the resulting pixels with common features into their own macro classes through image interpretation. 84𝐸 + 10 is the number of samples we need to distribute between the classes. To stratify the sample, the study uses the user's accuracy and standard of guessing. A photographic rendering of all samples is performed for all dates under study, the process identifies random pixels on the map, and the user identifies each cover class.
Note that the spatial resolution of the map remains at 30 meters, therefore it may include mixed pixels indicating multiple types of land cover class, in which case the user should consider the most widespread land cover in the region of interest (ROI). SCP calculates these statistics according to the area-based error matrix, where each element represents the estimated area proportion of each class. The resulting product is an estimate of the user's unbiased precision and producer's precision, the unbiased area of the classes according to the reference data, and the standard error of the surface estimates and confidence intervals.
It is good to note that standard errors are affected by the number of samples used in the study, so the samples should be increased proportionally to increase this. In general, the Kappa coefficient will be a study's measure of how classification results compare to values assigned at random (Rwanga et al., 2017). If the kappa coefficient is equal to 0, then there is no agreement between the classified image and the reference image. .; if the kappa coefficient is equal to 1, then the classified image and the ground truth image are exactly the same;
04Landscape Statistics and Spatial Metrics
05Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
The LST for 2016 and 2022 will be generated using the Landsat 8 thermal bands (see Table 7), estimating the LST can be processed using the Semiautomatic Classification Plugin (Congedo, 2021). This method is only applicable to Landsat 8 products, for Landsat 7 and Landsat 5 (2002 and 992 respectively), the emissivity of each cover type will be entered manually and calculated using the raster calculator. Due to different approaches, comparisons between 1992 and 2002 will have a different accuracy compared to 2016 and 2022; to.
To achieve a similar level of valuation for Metro Manila, the study will use the i-Tree Canopy model in a supervised classification to (a) obtain an urban green space inventory of land cover types within the study area and (b ) to provide an equivalent valuation of selected ecosystem services. The Metro Manila shapefile processed for the LULC is imported into the tool used to delineate the boundary of the area of analysis. 500 samples were selected for this analysis to improve the accuracy of the analysis as shown in the table below (Table 14).
Currently, i-Tree Canopy estimates data on the benefits of trees to the US based on weather stations, pollution monitors, tree growth rates and building construction methods (USDA, 2022). There is currently no standard selection of tree benefits for use in the Philippines, but if we consider climate based on precipitation and vegetation, we can draw a parallel from certain US states. The Köppen climate classification divides climates into five main climate groups based on seasonal precipitation, temperature patterns and vegetation (Beck et al., 2018; World Bank, 2017). The climate map shows that Miami Florida has the same climate classification as Metro Manila with the southern coast of Florida, Miami is classified as Af (tropical rainforest), Am (tropical monsoon) and Aw (tropical savannah). Using the US/Florida parameters, the Tree Benefit rating for Metro Manila can be given as shown in Table 15.
08Urban Greenspace Planning
R ESULTS
- Landscape Cover Classification
- Classification Accuracy
- Landscape Structure
- Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
- Land Surface Temperature (LST)
- Relationship of NDVI and LST Values
- Ecological Benefit Valuation
- Urban Green Space per Capita
- Population and Urban Expansion
- Defining Densification
- Comparison of Land Cover of 1992, 2002, 2016 and 2022 Metro Manila has undergone significant changes in the last three
- Reduced Permeability and Loss of Green Space
- Unchanged Pervious Cover
- Increasing Pervious Cover Class
- Minimizing the Urban Heat Island Effect
- Urban Green Spaces
- Socioeconomic Changes
- Local UGS Policy
- Urban Greenspace Policy
- Green Infrastructure
- Increasing UGS in Public areas and Infrastructure
- Increasing UGS in Privately Owned Spaces
Most of the decline in previous coverage classes in Metro Manila occurred in the northern, eastern and southern parts of the metropolis. Metro Manila's urban landscape mosaic consisted primarily of a permeable ground cover characterized by urban greenery and vegetation. From 1992 to 2022, there was an overall increase in green areas in Metro Manila, there is a fragmentation of vegetation areas after analyzing the landscape pattern.
We attribute the natural increase of the population in cities and the migration of the rural population to urban centers to economic factors. A case study was made for Hanoi (Uy & Nakagoshi, 2008), Vietnam and its results show that most of the planned green areas in the Hanoi 2020 Master Plan are suitable for. It seems that the area of 18 m2 of green space per inhabitant is not enough to maintain the ecological balance, and the organization of green spaces in the 2020 plan has no theoretical basis or integrity.
A case study by (Uy & Nakagoshi, 2008) for Hanoi, Vietnam shows that most of the planned green spaces in the 2020 Hanoi Master Plan are suitable for development. Another example is the open space requirement of the National Building Code which is based on lot (parcel) density. The majority of the 43% green spaces in the city are in La Mesa and the various cemeteries and golf courses.
The study reveals that most undisturbed UGS in Metro Manila are the La Mesa Watershed Protected Area, as well as parks and golf courses. Indoor green spaces such as roof gardens and terraces should be considered as part of open space requirements.
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Compact city, urban sprawl and subjective well-being. https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/about/worldwide-reference-system. 2017). Overlay of economic growth, demographic trends and physical characteristics. 2003).Adoption of the Operational Definition of Urban Areas in the Philippines | Philippine Statistics Authority (No. 9). https://psa.gov.ph/article/adoption-operational-definition-urban-areas-philippin es. Sustainable stormwater management under the influence of climate change and urban densification. Journal of Hydrology.
Shared Growth” Urban Renewal Initiatives in Makati City, Metro Manila, Philippines. Journal of Urban Management n.d.). What are the band designations for Landsat satellites. Application of land suitability analysis and landscape ecology in urban green space planning in Hanoi, Vietnam. Urban forestry and greening of cities. 2010).Urban Planning, Environment and Health From Evidence to Policy Action. http://www.euro.who.int/pubrequest.
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