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Abstract Difference in Socio-economic Status, Service Utilization, and Pregnancy Outcomes between Teenage and Adult Mothers

Srisamai Chaeuchat*

*Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Samroiyod Hospital, Prachuap Kiri Khan Province The objective of this study was to determine the differences in socio-economic status, service utilization, and pregnancy outcomes between teenage and adult mothers aged 20-25 years old. Data were collected by interviewing and reviewing the medical records of all mothers 13-25 years old who gave birth in Samroiyod Hospital, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, during the period September 1, 2006 to August 31, 2007. The study con- sisted of 150 teenage mothers whose age was 13-19 years old and 255 mothers whose age was 20-25 years old. Descriptive statistics including proportion, mean, and standard de- viation were used to present the analysis. The chi-square test or the Fisher’s exact test was used to compare between the proportions of the two groups. Among the pregnant women giving birth in the hospital during the study period, 29.0 percent were teenage mothers. About 54.0 percent of the teenage mothers were 18-19 years old and 9.3 percent were between 13 and 15 years of age. Their mean age was about 17.5 years old. The teenage mothers had significantly higher educational levels than the adult cases. Insuffi- cient earnings, no home of their own, and being separated were significantly more common in the teenage mothers than the adults. The proportions of teenage mothers com- pleting the antenatal care of four visits and taking iron supplement tablets regularly were significantly lower than those of the adults. The teenage mothers were significantly more likely to be in their first and unplanned pregnancies and have a history of abortion than the adults. Stress was significantly more common in the teenage mothers than the adults.

The teenage mothers significantly had a higher incidence of antenatal complications, including anemia and low weight gain during pregnancy, and low birth weight infants than the adult mothers. Good antenatal care should intensively be provided to these risky pregnancies. A reduction of the numbers of teenage pregnancies in the community is essential.

Key words: teenage mother, pregnancy outcome, low birth weight

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´÷Ëß¡“°°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à√âÕ¬≈– Û¯.ı Õ¬à“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠

(4)

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∑“ß ∂‘µ‘. à«π ∂“π¿“æ ¡√ æ∫«à“ ¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ·¬°°—πÕ¬Ÿà

°—∫ “¡’ √âÕ¬≈– ÚÒ.Û ¡“°°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à √âÕ¬≈– ˜.Ò Õ¬à“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘. ¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ¡’Õ“™’æ∑’Ë‰¡à¡—Ëπ§ß

√“¬‰¥â§√Õ∫§√—«‰¡à‡æ’¬ßæÕ ·≈–‰¡à¡’∫â“π‡ªìπ¢Õßµ—«‡Õß „π —¥ à«π∑’Ë Ÿß°«à“ ¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠àÕ¬à“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘

(µ“√“ß∑’Ë Ò).

”À√—∫°“√Ω“°§√√¿åæ∫«à“°“√Ω“°§√√¿å§√—Èß·√°‰¡à

·µ°µà“ß°—π¡“°π—°√–À«à“ß¡“√¥“∑—Èß Õß°≈ÿà¡. à«π°“√Ω“°

§√√¿å§√∫ Ù §√—Èßµ“¡‡°≥±å ·≈–°“√°‘π¬“‡ √‘¡∏“µÿ‡À≈Á°

Õ¬à“ß ¡Ë”‡ ¡Õ æ∫„π°≈ÿà¡¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπµË”°«à“°≈ÿà¡¡“√¥“«—¬

ºŸâ„À≠àÕ¬à“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘. ¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ√âÕ¬≈– Ú˘.Û

¡’§«“¡‡§√’¬¥ Ÿß°«à“ª√°µ‘ ‡ª√’¬∫‡∑’¬∫°—∫√âÕ¬≈– Ò.Ú

¢Õß¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à §«“¡·µ°µà“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘. ¡“√¥“

«—¬√ÿàπ√âÕ¬≈– ¯Ú.˜ µ—Èß§√√¿å·√°¡“°°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à

(√âÕ¬≈– ÚÙ.Û) Õ¬à“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘. ¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ√âÕ¬≈–

ıÛ.Û ¡’§«“¡‰¡àæ√âÕ¡„π°“√µ—Èß§√√¿å ·≈–√âÕ¬≈– ¯.˜ ¡’

ª√–«—µ‘·∑âßÀ√◊Õ°“√µ—Èß§√√¿åº‘¥ª√°µ‘ ´÷Ëßæ∫¡“°°«à“°≈ÿà¡

¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à (√âÕ¬≈– ¯.˜ ·≈– Ú.Ù µ“¡≈”¥—∫) Õ¬à“ß¡’

π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘ (µ“√“ß∑’Ë Ú).

”À√—∫¿“«–·∑√°´âÕπ¢≥–¡’§√√¿å æ∫«à“¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ

¡’ªí≠À“√–À«à“ß¡’§√√¿å √âÕ¬≈– Ù ¡“°°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à

√âÕ¬≈– Òı.˜ Õ¬à“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘. ¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ√âÕ¬≈–

ÚÙ ¡’¿“«–‚≈À‘µ®“ß ·≈–√âÕ¬≈– ÒÛ.Û πÈ”Àπ—°µ—«‡æ‘Ë¡πâÕ¬

°«à“ Ò °‘‚≈°√—¡ ´÷Ëß Ÿß°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à (√âÕ¬≈– ˆ.Û ·≈–

˜.Ò µ“¡≈”¥—∫) Õ¬à“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘. à«π≈—°…≥–°“√

§≈Õ¥·≈–¿“«–·∑√°´âÕπ„π√–¬–§≈Õ¥ ‰¡àæ∫·µ°µà“ß°—π (µ“√“ß∑’Ë Û).

¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ√âÕ¬≈– Òˆ §≈Õ¥∫ÿµ√∑’Ë¡’πÈ”Àπ—°πâÕ¬°«à“

µ“√“ß∑’Ë Ò ∂“π–∑“ß —ß§¡·≈–‡»√…∞°‘® ‡ª√’¬∫‡∑’¬∫√–À«à“ß¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπÕ“¬ÿ ÒÛ-Ò˘ ªï °—∫¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠àÕ“¬ÿ Ú-Úı ªï

¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ Òı §π ¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à Úıı §π

∂“π–∑“ß —ß§¡·≈–‡»√…∞°‘® §à“æ’

®”π«π √âÕ¬≈– ®”π«π √âÕ¬≈–

°“√»÷°…“

µË”°«à“¡—∏¬¡»÷°…“µÕπµâπ ˆÙ ÙÚ.˜ Òı˜ ˆÒ.ı < .Ò

Ÿß°«à“À√◊Õ‡∑à“°—∫ ¯ˆ ı˜.Û ˘¯ Û¯.ı

¡—∏¬¡»÷°…“µÕπµâπ ∂“π¿“æ ¡√

·¬°°—πÕ¬Ÿà ÛÚ ÚÒ.Û Ò¯ ˜.Ò < .Ò

Õ¬Ÿà¥â«¬°—π ÒÒ¯ ˜¯.˜ ÚÛ˜ ˘Ú.˘

Õ“™’æ

‰¡à¡—Ëπ§ß Òı Ò. ÚÙ ˘Ù.Ò < .Ò

¡—Ëπ§ß  . Òı ı.˘

√“¬‰¥â§√Õ∫§√—«

‰¡à‡æ’¬ßæÕ ÒÒ ˜Û.Û Òˆ ˆÚ.˜ .Û

‡æ’¬ßæÕ Ù Úˆ.˜ ˘ı Û˜.Û

¡’∫â“π‡ªìπ¢Õßµ—«‡Õß

‰¡à¡’ ÒÛı ˘. Ò˜ı ˆ¯.ˆ < .Ò

¡’ Òı Ò. ¯ ÛÒ.Ù

(5)

ıÒ

Ú,ı °√—¡ ·µ°µà“ß°—∫√âÕ¬≈– ı.˘ ¢Õß¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à Õ¬à“ß¡’π—¬ ”§—≠∑“ß ∂‘µ‘. à«π§–·ππ·Õæ°“√å∑’Ë ı π“∑’

·≈– ¿“æ∑“√°º‘¥ª√°µ‘À≈—ß§≈Õ¥ ‰¡à·µ°µà“ß°—π√–À«à“ß

¡“√¥“∑—Èß Õß°≈ÿà¡ (µ“√“ß∑’Ë Ù).

«‘®“√≥å

°“√»÷°…“§√—Èßπ’Èæ∫¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ∂÷ß√âÕ¬≈– Ú˘ ´÷Ëß Ÿß

°«à“‡ªÑ“À¡“¬„π·ºπæ—≤π“ ÿ¢¿“æ·Ààß™“µ‘∑’Ë°”Àπ¥„Àâ¡’

¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ‰¡à‡°‘π√âÕ¬≈– Ò^(Ù) · ¥ß„Àâ‡ÀÁπ«à“§«“¡æ¬“¬“¡

∑’Ë®–≈¥®”π«π¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπÕ“®¬—ß‰¡à¡“°æÕ, ‚§√ß°“√µà“ß Ê Õ“®®–‡√‘Ë¡°—∫«—¬√ÿàπ≈à“™â“‡°‘π‰ª. ®“°°“√»÷°…“∑’Ëæ∫¡“√¥“«—¬

√ÿàπÕ“¬ÿµË” ÿ¥ ÒÛ ªï ‡æ‘Ëß®∫™—Èπª√–∂¡»÷°…“µÕπª≈“¬ ®÷ß

§«√ àß‡ √‘¡§«“¡√Ÿâ‡√◊ËÕß‡æ»»÷°…“ ·≈–«‘∏’°“√§ÿ¡°”‡π‘¥·°à π—°‡√’¬πµ—Èß·µà‡√‘Ë¡™—Èπª√–∂¡»÷°…“µÕπª≈“¬. °“√æ∫¡“√¥“

«—¬√ÿàπ„π°“√»÷°…“π’È¡’√–¥—∫°“√»÷°…“ Ÿß°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à

·µ°µà“ß®“°°“√»÷°…“Õ◊Ëπ∑’Ëæ∫¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ¡’√–¥—∫°“√»÷°…“µË”

µ“√“ß∑’Ë Ú °“√Ω“°§√√¿å·≈–ª√–«—µ‘°“√‡®√‘≠æ—π∏ÿå ¢Õß¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ·≈–¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à

°“√‰¥â√—∫∫√‘°“√Ω“°§√√¿å ¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ Òı §π ¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à ÚÚı §π §à“æ’

/ª√–«—µ‘°“√‡®√‘≠æ—π∏ÿå ®”π«π √âÕ¬≈– ®”π«π √âÕ¬≈–

Õ“¬ÿ§√√¿å‡¡◊ËÕΩ“°§√√¿å§√—Èß·√° ( —ª¥“Àå)

< ÒÙ ıˆ Û˜.Û ˘ Ûı.Û .ˆ¯

≥ ÒÙ ˘Ù ˆÚ.˜ Òˆı ˆÙ.˜

Ω“°§√√¿å§√∫ Ù §√—Èßµ“¡‡°≥±å

§√∫ ÒÒÚ ˜Ù.ˆ ÚÚ ¯ˆ.Û < .Ò

‰¡à§√∫ Û¯ Úı.Ù Ûı ÒÛ.˜

°“√°‘π¬“‡ √‘¡∏“µÿ‡À≈Á°

¡Ë”‡ ¡Õ ÒÚ ¯. ÚÙÛ ˘ı.Û < .Ò

‰¡à ¡Ë”‡ ¡Õ Û Ú. ÒÚ Ù.˜

°“√ª√–‡¡‘π§«“¡‡§√’¬¥

ª√°µ‘ Òˆ ˜.˜ ÚÚ˘ ¯˘.¯ < .Ò

Ÿß°«à“ª√°µ‘ ÙÙ Ú˘.Û Úˆ Ò.Ú

≈”¥—∫°“√µ—Èß§√√¿å

§√√¿å·√° ÒÚÙ ¯Ú.˜ ˆÚ ÚÙ.Û < .Ò

§√√¿åÀ≈—ß Úˆ Ò˜.Û Ò˘Û ˜ı.˜

§«“¡æ√âÕ¡¢Õß°“√µ—Èß§√√¿å

æ√âÕ¡ ˜ Ùˆ.˜ ÚÛÛ ˘Ò.Û < .Ò

‰¡àæ√âÕ¡ ¯ ıÛ.Û ÚÚ ¯.˜

ª√–«—µ‘°“√·∑âßÀ√◊Õµ—Èß§√√¿åº‘¥ª√°µ‘

‰¡à¡’ ÒÛˆ ˘.ˆ ÚÙ˘ ˘˜.ˆ < .Ò*

¡’ ÒÙ ˘.Ù ˆ Ú.Ù

- °“√·∑âß ÒÛ ¯.˜ ı Ú.

- ∑“√°µ“¬„π§√√¿å Ò .˜ Ò .Ù

*‡ª√’¬∫‡∑’¬∫√–À«à“ß°≈ÿà¡∑’Ë‰¡à¡’ ·≈–°≈ÿà¡∑’Ë¡’ª√–«—µ‘°“√·∑âßÀ√◊Õµ—Èß§√√¿åº‘¥ª√°µ‘

(6)

ıÚ

°«à“^(ı,ˆ). ∑—Èßπ’ÈÕ“®‡π◊ËÕß‡æ√“–„πªí®®ÿ∫—π¡’°“√¢¬“¬‚Õ°“

∑“ß°“√»÷°…“¡“°¢÷Èπ ∑—Èß√–∫∫„π‚√ß‡√’¬π·≈–πÕ°‚√ß‡√’¬π.

¥â“π ∂“π–∑“ß —ß§¡·≈–‡»√…∞°‘®æ∫«à“ ¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ

¡—°¡’√“¬‰¥â‰¡à‡æ’¬ßæÕ ‰¡à¡’∫â“π‡ªìπ¢Õßµ—«‡Õß ·≈–À≈“¬√“¬

·¬°°—πÕ¬Ÿà°—∫ “¡’ ´÷Ëß· ¥ß«à“¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ‡À≈à“π’ÈÕ“®‰¡à‰¥â

·µàßß“π ¬—ß§ßÕ“»—¬Õ¬Ÿà°—∫æàÕ·¡à ·≈–‰¡à¡’ß“π∑” ´÷Ëß

Õ¥§≈âÕß°—∫°“√»÷°…“¢Õß Otterblad-Olausson ·≈–

§≥–^(˜). ªí≠À“∑“ß —ß§¡·≈–‡»√…∞°‘®Õ“®¡’ à«π∑”„ÀâÀ≠‘ß

«—¬√ÿàπ∑’Ëµ—Èß§√√¿å∫“ß√“¬ æ¬“¬“¡ ‘Èπ ÿ¥°“√¡’§√√¿å¥â«¬°“√

∑”·∑âß ¥—ßπ—Èπ°“√‡ √‘¡ √â“ß§«“¡√Ÿâ§«“¡‡¢â“„® ·≈–°“√‡¢â“∂÷ß

∫√‘°“√§ÿ¡°”‡π‘¥„π°≈ÿà¡«—¬√ÿàπÕ“®™à«¬≈¥ªí≠À“π’È≈ß‰¥â ´÷Ëß

§«√¥”‡π‘πß“π‰ªæ√âÕ¡°—∫°“√¡’‡æ» —¡æ—π∏å∑’Ëª≈Õ¥¿—¬. °“√

µ“√“ß∑’Ë Û ¿“«–·∑√°´âÕπ¢Õß°“√µ—Èß§√√¿å ¢Õß¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ ·≈–¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à

¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ (Òı §π) ¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à (Úıı §π)

¿“«–·∑√°´âÕπ §à“æ’

®”π«π √âÕ¬≈– ®”π«π √âÕ¬≈–

º≈µàÕ¡“√¥“„π√–¬–¡’§√√¿å

‰¡à¡’ ˘ ˆ. ÚÒı ¯Ù.Û < .Ò

¡’* ˆ Ù. Ù Òı.˜

- ¿“«–‚≈À‘µ®“ß Ûˆ ÚÙ. Òˆ ˆ.Û

- ‰¢à¢“«„πªí “«– Ò .˜ Ò .Ù

- ‚√§‡∫“À«“π Ò .˜ Ò .Ù

- πÈ”Àπ—°‡æ‘Ë¡ < Ò °‘‚≈°√—¡ Ú ÒÛ.Û Ò¯ ˜.Ò

- ‰«√— µ—∫Õ—°‡ ∫∫’ Ú Ò.Û ı Ú.

- ‚√§µ‘¥µàÕ∑“ß‡æ» —¡æ—π∏å Ò .˜ Ò .˜

º≈µàÕ¡“√¥“„π√–¬–§≈Õ¥

‰¡à¡’ ÒÛˆ ˘.ˆ ÚÛÙ ˘Ò.¯ .¯

¡’* ÒÙ ˘.Ù ÚÒ ¯.Ú

- §«“¡¥—π‚≈À‘µ Ÿß¢≥–µ—Èß§√√¿å Ú Ò.Û Ú .¯

- ‡®Á∫§√√¿å§≈Õ¥°àÕπ°”Àπ¥ Û Ú. ˘ Û.ı

- ¡’πÈ”‡¥‘π°àÕπ°”Àπ¥ ˆ Ù. ˆ Ú.Ù

- √°‡°“–µË” Ù Ú.˜ Ú .¯

- µ°‡≈◊Õ¥À≈—ß§≈Õ¥ Ò .˜ Ú .¯

«‘∏’§≈Õ¥

ª√°µ‘ ÒÙÛ ˘ı.Û ÚÙÛ ˘ı.Û .˘˘

º‘¥ª√°µ‘ ˜ Ù.˜ ÒÚ Ù.˜

- ºà“µ—¥§≈Õ¥∑“ßÀπâ“∑âÕß ˜ Ù.˜ ¯ Û.Ò

- ™à«¬§≈Õ¥∑à“°âπ  . Ú .¯

- §≈Õ¥‚¥¬„™â§’¡  . Ò .Ù

- §≈Õ¥‚¥¬„™â‡§√◊ËÕß¥Ÿ¥  . Ò .Ù

*∫“ß√“¬¡’¿“«–·∑√°´âÕπ¡“°°«à“ Ò Õ¬à“ß

(7)

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√≥√ß§å„™â∂ÿß¬“ßÕπ“¡—¬„π°“√¡’‡æ» —¡æ—π∏å°—∫§ŸàπÕπ¢Õß

‡¥Á°«—¬‡√’¬π·≈–‡¥Á°«—¬√ÿàπ Õ“®™à«¬≈¥°“√µ—Èß§√√¿å„π«—¬√ÿàπ

≈ß‰¥â∫â“ß.

Õ“¬ÿ§√√¿å‡¡◊ËÕΩ“°§√√¿å§√—Èß·√°¢Õß¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ‰¡à

·µ°µà“ß®“°¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à ·µà°“√¡“Ω“°§√√¿å§√∫ Ù §√—Èß µ“¡‡°≥±å æ∫«à“µË”°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à ´÷Ëß Õ¥§≈âÕß°—∫°“√

»÷°…“¢Õß ÿ®‘µ√“ ≈âÕ∑«’ «— ¥‘Ï^(¯). °“√∑’Ë¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ°‘π¬“‡ √‘¡

∏“µÿ‡À≈Á°‰¡à ¡Ë”‡ ¡Õ ®÷ß¡’¿“«–‚≈À‘µ®“ß ·≈–πÈ”Àπ—°µ—«‡æ‘Ë¡

πâÕ¬°«à“ Ò °‘‚≈°√—¡„π™à«ß¡’§√√¿å ¡“°°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à

´÷Ëß· ¥ß«à“¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ¢“¥§«“¡‡Õ“„®„ à„π°“√¥Ÿ·≈µ—«‡Õß

∑“ß¥â“π‚¿™π“°“√ ·≈–‰¡à‰¥â„Àâ§«“¡ ”§—≠·°à°“√°‘π¬“

‡ √‘¡∏“µÿ‡À≈Á° √«¡∑—Èß à«π„À≠à‡ªìπ°“√µ—Èß§√√¿å·√°∑”„Àâ¬—ß

¢“¥ª√– ∫°“√≥å ¥—ßπ—Èπ®÷ß§«√ àß‡ √‘¡„Àâ§«“¡√Ÿâ∑“ß¥â“π

‚¿™π“°“√, ª√–‚¬™πå¢Õß¬“‡ √‘¡∏“µÿ‡À≈Á° ·≈–°“√¥Ÿ·≈µ—«

‡ÕßÕ¬à“ß∂Ÿ°µâÕß ·°à¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ„Àâ¡“°¢÷Èπ. ”À√—∫°“√

ª√–‡¡‘π√–¥—∫§«“¡‡§√’¬¥¥â«¬µ—«‡Õßæ∫«à“¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ¡’

§«“¡‡§√’¬¥ Ÿß°«à“ª√°µ‘¡“°°«à“¡“√¥“«—¬ºŸâ„À≠à ∑—Èßπ’ÈÕ“®

‡π◊ËÕß®“°§«“¡‰¡àæ√âÕ¡¢Õß«ÿ≤‘¿“«– ´÷Ëß§«√‰¥â√—∫§”ª√÷°…“

·π–π”®“°π—°®‘µ«‘∑¬“‡æ◊ËÕ§≈“¬§«“¡‡§√’¬¥ ‰¡à‡™àππ—ÈπÕ“®

‡°‘¥¿“«–´÷¡‡»√â“¿“¬À≈—ß§≈Õ¥µ“¡¡“‰¥â. ¡“√¥“«—¬√ÿàπ¡—°

‡ªìπ°“√µ—Èß§√√¿å§√—Èß·√° ·≈–‰¡à¡’§«“¡æ√âÕ¡ ”À√—∫°“√µ—Èß

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Ú. ÿ«™—¬ Õ‘π∑√ª√–‡ √‘∞. °“√µ—Èß§√√¿å„π«—¬√ÿàπ. „π: °”·Àß ®“µÿ√

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°√ÿß‡∑æ¡À“π§√: O.S. Printing House; ÚıÛ. Àπâ“ ıÒÒ-ÚÚ.

Û. May KA, Malmeister LR, editors. Maternal and neonatal nursing:

family center care. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1994. p.

197-211.

·ºπæ—≤π“ ÿ¢¿“æ·Ààß™“µ‘„π™à«ß·ºπæ—≤π“‡»√…∞°‘®·≈– —ß§¡

ı. East PL, Felice ME. Outcomes and parent-child relationships of former adolescent mothers and their 12-year-old children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1990; 11: 175-83.

ˆ. Jimenez MA, Martin AR, Garcia JR. Comparing the biological and psychosocial risks of pregnancy between groups of adoles- cents and adults. Eur J Epidemiol 2000; 16: 527-32.

˜. Otterblad-Olausson P, Cnattingius S, Haglund B. Teenage pregnancies and risk of late fetal death and infant mortality. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 106: 116-21.

¯. ÿ®‘µ√“ ≈âÕ∑«’ «— ¥‘Ï. ¿“«–·∑√°´âÕπ·≈–º≈°“√§≈Õ¥¢Õß¡“√¥“

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Ò. Van Eyk N, Allen LM, Sermer M, Davis VJ. Obstetric outcome of adolescent pregnancies. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2000; 13:

96.

ÒÒ. Gortzak-Uzan L, Hallak M, Press F, Katz M. Teenage pregnancy:

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Ò. Naeye RL. Teenage and pre- teenaged pregnancies: consequences of the fetal- maternal complication for nutrients. Pediatrics 1981;

67: 146-50.