Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.11 Previous Studies: Perceptions of
69 with regard to internationalizing and retaining the inherent values of Islamic and Arabic culture.
2.11 Previous Studies: Perceptions of Institutional Stakeholders on
70 Uzhegova and Baik (2020) offer several recommendations, integrating the previously mentioned development areas, as identified in their studies. Building an international profile is vital; a profile facilitates the establishment of a ‘niche’ HEIs may use to distinguish themselves internationally. Second, international collaborations allow HEIs to get access to resources otherwise unavailable to them. Third, institutional research is an important pillar which supports the development of strategic international positioning by HEIs. The study's interviews revealed the top leaders' viewpoints on the process of internationalization. Accordingly, they concluded that more efforts are required in communicating the value of internationalization to all staff members involved.
2.11.1 Definition of Internationalization in Chinese Higher Education Institutions
The dialogue on the internationalization of higher education is mainly dominated by Western ideals. Internationalization is a complex phenomenon that requires multicultural perspectives from around the world. Lui (2020) aimed to gather a collective perception of the Chinese definition of internationalization based on Chinese institutional goals, approaches, and challenges of internationalization. The definition was constructed from interviews with 37 Chinese professionals working in 37 HEIs across China. Liu (2020) provides deep insights into how countries in the non- Western world learn, select, and adapt the Western practices that best suit their national needs.
The results suggest that the definition of internationalization centers on achieving world-class standards with worldwide recognition. Knowledge creation is another widely recognized meaning of internationalization, according to Chinese perceptions.
71 As for the rationales of internationalization, the main theme is improving academic quality and establishing international partnerships with top institutions. Achieving a higher global ranking remains a recurrent perception and objective for internationalizing HEIs. Furthermore, the central approach to internationalization, according to Chinese professionals, lies in international partnerships, joint research programs, and international exchanges of students and faculty. Lastly, the study elucidates the challenges of internationalization: lack of institutional strategy and consensus, lack of commitment from seniors, and lack of initiatives and incentives—
these are the main issues surrounding internationalization.
2.11.2 Internationalization in Canadian Higher Education
With advances in strategies such as student-staff exchange programs, I@H, and internationalization of the curriculum, educational policies are at the forefront of these internationalization strategies and their effective implementation. Taskoh (2020) used critical policy analysis mainly to assess the reasons for internationalization in a Canadian public HEI. The qualitative methodology included interviews with top leaders such as administrators, departmental chairs, and executive managers, as well as faculty members from four colleges. The purpose of assessing policies in this study was to gauge the reasons why certain policies for internationalization are adopted over existing alternatives.
The study's findings indicate several rationales for pursuing internationalization, including providing high-quality education to developing global citizens, building higher capacities for research, and enhancing the institutional branding and profile. The study also probed deeply into the economic rationales to reveal that the rhetoric is to pursue internationalization for academic rationales.
72 According to faculty, internationalization is mainly to pursue financial gains, commercialization of higher education on a global level, and establishment of an international profile. The study concludes that universities need to demonstrate a higher level of commitment towards internationalization and to reimagine it as a public good. By focusing on the economic rationales, HEIs jeopardize the academic purpose and mission of post-secondary education. Moreover, Taskoh (2020) calls for an alignment of the perceptions of institutional stakeholders with the motivations and reasons for pursuing internationalization; this would help in effectively managing the internationalization goals.
2.11.3 Internationalization in Cambodian Higher Education Institutions
The imperative to enhance and develop the higher education sector has been viewed as an opportunity to drive economic growth in both developed and developing countries. Globalization has indeed raised internationalization as a tool to enhance higher education offerings worldwide. Research on internationalization in HEIs around the world is replete with Western perspectives. Kea’s (2014) research aimed to examine the internationalization process within HEIs in small, developing countries, uncovering the perceptions of institutional stakeholders of the internationalization of HEIs. Implementation of the internationalization, as well as challenges and opportunities, were also investigated.
The study used qualitative and quantitative methods to assess institutional stakeholders’ perceptions of the meaning, importance, rationales, and risks of internationalization, providing comprehensive insight into their viewpoints.
Cambodia's Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP) was a case study, contextualizing the process of internationalization in a small, developing country. The
73 effectiveness of implementation and the frequency of internationalization activities are an important aspect of the study. Hence, they were assessed to provide a deeper understanding of the process of internationalization in RUPP.
The findings indicate that the internationalization of HEIs in small, developing countries is a hierarchical process characterized by its stages of development, risks, and challenges. The common perception among institutional stakeholders is that internationalization is a tool to bring modernity into the HEIs, focusing on academic standards recognized globally. These are fortified by an interculturally integrated curriculum, student/faculty mobility, and international cooperation. The significance of internationalization, according to institutional stakeholders, lies within its capacity to enhance the academic quality up to the international standard. While several initiatives aim to internationalize RUPP, the main issue with implementation seems to be the lack of a comprehensive strategy to guide their practices. Lack of financial and human resources is another issue. Kea (2014) observes that these are obstacles for the HEIs in small, developing countries which prevent them from ascending the hierarchical ladder of internationalization.
2.11.4 Internationalization in Japanese HEIs
Morley et al. (2020) conducted a study of the affective assemblages of internationalization in Japanese higher education. The researchers aimed to investigate the implementation of internationalization in Japan and how it is experienced and imagined, and to combine mobility with the issues of affect and equity. Data were gathered in semi-structured interviews over two years from 13 foreign doctoral researchers and 34 emigrant academics in public, national, and private universities in Japan. The study shows that internationalization offers rich rewards in individual
74 experiences and expertise however, it can also reproduce dominant social and international hierarchies, systems, and expulsions. Additionally, positive attunement with the international knowledge economy is indicated due to the presence of international bodies in neoliberal systems. However, in relation to differential interactions and services, precarity is also experienced by the participants. Results show that international mobility provides new types of ‘stickiness’ and entrapment in identity issues and inequalities as an outsider. Although mobility represents a new, post-national and improved cosmopolitanism for knowledge, people, and higher education systems, it also creates a type of erasure in the accelerated, instrumental, and commodifying market economy of the neoliberal academic worldwide, requiring affective and gendered employment to manage the geopolitics of knowledge.
2.11.5 Internationalization in Japanese and Singaporean HEIs
Sanders (2019) investigated national-level internationalization of higher education policies in Japan and Singapore using a comparative cross-case analysis.
The study proposed that, in spite of differences in national conditions and final approaches to internationalization, the two countries use it mainly as a process to stay competitive in the worldwide knowledge-based economy of the 21st century. Although internationalization constructs bridges between institutions, countries, and people inside and across regions, it is being driven by nationally focused rationales in these two nations. In both, internationalization of higher education is a clear response to globalization. The study also suggests that to maintain its legitimacy, both countries must ensure close ties between education and economic development to ensure that, as the economy internationalizes, so does the education.
75 The common themes uncovered from previous studies on internationalization from different contexts revolve around internationalization serving as means for building an international reputation and profile. Furthermore, internationalization is seen as a way of creating knowledge and improving the quality of education worldwide. The approaches taken to internationalize are mainly through international collaborations with universities, partnerships, and student/faculty exchange programs.
Across all contexts, whether in developing peripheral countries or developed Western countries, internationalization is seen as a significant phenomenon which provides a plethora of benefits such research enhancement, higher quality of education, and an international profile which offers its own set of benefits for the institutions and nations.