Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.3 Internationalization of Higher Education: Process,
2.3.1 Process
18 internationalization—from the organizational change which brings effective implementation, to the commitment evidenced by outcomes of internationalization (measurable aspects). Bearing similarities with the circumstances in which globalization takes place, internationalization has been conceptualized as the flow of ideas, research, and activities across borders. The definitions have evolved over time, reflecting changes in the higher education landscape. The following section elaborates on the process of internationalization through the various approaches and models present in literature.
19 inputs, thereby leading to different developments. The following state, known as the attractor state, occurs when a system is open and ever-changing, although, under certain conditions, stable. It can be said that the attractor state is when the system is accustomed to the current state. Another feature is that when external forces penetrate and call for change, the system re-organizes and finds a new attractor state. The dynamic system also has control parameters which enable the system to move forward or hinder its development and these are deemed as critical elements able to affect the whole system.
Developing DST and other ideas in the literature, Zhou (2016) proposes that internationalization occurs at five distinct levels: the global, national, institutional, program, and personal levels.
The global level, being the broadest, is internationalization which occurs in the global context, including the essential skills needed by students in the 21st century, the context of global development, and the various technologies in use worldwide. The national level mirrors the situational and internationalization needs of a specific country, including elements such as national student mobility trends. The institutional level refers to internationalization at a single institution and includes elements such as mission statements and internationalization programs on campus. The program level comprises the various needs of the different disciplines involved. Lastly, the personal level refers to the individual activities pertaining to internationalization, ranging from faculty courses, the extracurricular activities of students, and professional development training for staff.
Within each of these five levels are further components, designated as purposes, programs, approaches, projects, and outcomes. Purpose alludes to why the
20 subject is motivated to adopt internationalization and includes the overall goals and strategic plans. Program refers to the site of internationalization—that is, where the internationalization is needed. Approach refers to the method undertaken to achieve the goals of institutional internationalization, including implementation strategies.
Projects are the activities of internationalization, while outcomes are the results of all activities. The hierarchy within the conceptual structure resembles an upside-down cone shape, with the highest level having broader, encompassing purposes and developing more considerable outcomes in comparison to the narrower levels below.
Each level has the above-mentioned states and operates within a dynamic system.
Conceptualizing the process of internationalization using DST provides a strategic perspective on how the sub-processes are affected by different elements and ultimately impact the total process of internationalization.
Another model to explain the process of internationalization is found in Knight's (1994) internationalization cycle, which delineates six phases to describe the process of internationalization. The process begins with an awareness of the phenomenon, which entails the need and purpose of internationalization to be clearly articulated, followed by a commitment phase involving various stakeholders seeking to foster a mutual understanding and cooperation. The next phase includes the planning of resources, strategies, and priorities. This is followed by operationalization in terms of implementation, then review and reinforcement phases. The process is underpinned by a ‘supportive’ culture, meaning the six phases are more efficient with the full support of relevant stakeholders. These are the general stages in an internationalization process strategy; however, Söderqvist (2002) prefers to classify these stages in terms of outcomes:
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• A zero stage (where internationalization activities are marginal)
• A first stage (with a focus on student mobility)
• A second stage (increased curriculum and research internationalization)
• A third stage (institutionalizing internationalization, where quality is given more importance)
• A fourth stage (commercializing internationalization, wherein higher education service is exported).
The process of internationalization can also be explained using Knight's six phases (1994) with Van der Wende's (1997a) three steps combined, which are: (i) analysis of the environment; (ii) implementation analysis; and (iii) integration effect.
These two models explain the process through which institutions internationalize themselves, including the process of implementation, which is the focus of the research question. In order to have a holistic understanding of the process involved as a whole, it is essential to explore the models proposed by both Van der Wende and Knight. Van der Wende's (1997a) model recognizes three important factors for internationalization.
The first factor is the goals and strategies toward internationalization (as defined by the university itself and other international policies). The second factor corresponds to the implementation of the goals and strategies in three particular areas: student mobility, staff mobility, and curriculum development. The third factor is the effects of the implementation phase. Within the implementation phase, the model analyzes the short-term effects on student mobility, staff mobility, and curriculum development, and the long-term effects on the quality of education, output, and position of the institution.
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