Available online 21 May 2022
1359-4311/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fawzy Abou-Taleb
a, A.E. Kabeel
c,daMechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh 33516, Egypt
bDepartment of Environmental Engineering, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
cMechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
dFaculty of Engineering, Delta University for Science and Technology, Gamasa, Egypt
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords:
Desalination
Trapezoidal pyramid solar still Trapezoidal pyramidal wick Water economy
A B S T R A C T
Currently, many efforts have been conducted to augment the solar desalination systems’ performance, especially solar stills, as a participation in solving the water shortage and energy consumption crises. Herein, the current manuscript introduces a new design of trapezoidal pyramid solar still. This design was compared to a conven- tional (single slope) solar still. The proposed design contained central trapezoidal pyramidal wick structure aiming to enlarge the area exposed to insolation, and hence boosting the evaporation rate. Then, the modified solar still was integrated with cover cooling unit to improve the condensation rate and external reflectors to concentrate the radiation on the wick structure (evaporation surface). The cooling unit and reflectors were used separately in the second and third case, respectively, then they were utilized together in the fourth case. Finally, in the last case, to enhance the thermo-physical properties of the basin saline water, a copper-oxide nanoparticles were added and the resulted nanofluid was used instead of the basin water. Besides, based on the experimental findings, the thermo-economic performance was assessed. The results showed that the proposed system is feasible with significantly enhanced performance. In addition, compared to relevant works, the proposed deign and modifications are competitive and can add important knowledge to the desalination research field. As a result, the system provided with all modifications could augment the productivity, energy efficiency, and exergy efficiency by 147.3, 144.2, and 275.5%. Economically, the freshwater cost could be reduced by 42.58%.
1. Introduction
Nowadays, potable water and energy are the highest challenges in the world. world health organization (WHO) has reported that drinking water is not available to around 29% of humankind around the world [1,2]. So, scientists and engineers have developed different methods to desalinate saline water. On the other hand, the energy crises and global warming have necessitated the clean energy-based systems, especially solar-driven units, such as [3-5], such as solar desalination [6] solar collector with a novel turbulator [7,8], parabolic solar collector with nanofluid [9], solar draying [10], and linear Fresnel [11]. For water desalination, a lot of methods consume much energy such as reverse osmosis [12-14], humidification and dehumidification [15-17]. There- fore, solar stills (SSs) have become good choice to produce potable water depending only on solar energy with a simple working principle [18,19].
Unfortunately, their production capacity and efficiency still low, therefore, they cannot be sufficient for high demand purposes. Hence,
many efforts have been exerted to develop SSs either via different de- signs or integrated devices and additives. Different designs of SSs have been developed, such as pyramid SS [20,21], tubular SS [22-24], in- clined SS [25,26], flat SS [27], multi-basin [28] double-slope SS (DSSS) [29-32], and stepped SS [33,34]. On the other hand, the most widely used methods for solar stills modifications, nanofluids [35,36], nano- coating[37], thin film evaporation [38-41], phase change materials (PCMs) [42-46], wick material [38,47-49], hydrogel materials [50], v- corrugated aluminum basin[51], cotton hung pad with nano[52], carbonized wood with nano[53] reflectors [4], energy storage[54-57], nano-based mushrooms[58], heat localization materials [59], cover cooling [36,38,60,61], graphene nano-ratchet [62], evacuated tubes [63], porous absorber [64], solar collector [65-68], and hybrid systems [69-72]. Some parameters affect the SSs’ performance, particularly basin water depth [73-75].
The augmentation of SSs thermal performance depends on improving the condensation process, evaporation process, or both. On one hand, the condensation process can be boosted by utilization of
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.W. Sharshir).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118699
Received 24 November 2021; Received in revised form 9 May 2022; Accepted 17 May 2022
cover cooling or integrated condensers. The utilization of active cooling unit via partial coil condenser in a DSSS could obtain high daily yield and efficiency of (11.5 L, and 76.66%) and (8.2 L, and 54.74%) in summer and winter seasons, respectively [76]. Moreover, Khan et al.
[77] reported that the improvement factor of efficiency of hemispherical SS reached 1.25 considering cooler flow rate of 1/6 mL/s. In addition, different fluids can be involved as coolant, such as water and air; how- ever the water is more efficient than air [78]. water can be precooled before flowing over the glass cover via different methods. For example, Shoeibi et al. [79] used a thermoelectric (TE) for this purpose besides using the hot side of the TE as a preheater of the basin water. As re- ported, the productivity increased by a factor of 2.32 with thermal en- ergy and exergy efficiencies of 76.4 % and 1.48 %, respectively.
On the other hand, the evaporation process can be enhanced via utilizing high capillary materials, such as wick. The utilization of linen wicks can augment the stepped DSSS yield by 80.57 % as concluded by Sharshir et al. [31]. In addition, Abdullah et al. [80] mentioned the corrugated wick absorber configuration could increase the production enhancement ratio from 122% to 180% when used in together with PV- powered heater and nanoparticles. Ahmed et al. [81] improved inclined solar still by using low cost wick material with continues circulation for the water. It was also observed that the system without wick material had 57.86 % lower water production.
Another methodology of improving the vapor generation in SSs is concentrating the input radiation via reflectors either external or in- ternal. Bataineh and Abbas [82] reported that adding internal reflectors and fins could increase the efficiency by 46% in December. Abdullah et al. [83] integrated internal and external to dynamic wick-based SS of a sliding belt. A production increase of 300% and 260% could be ach- ieved with and without reflectors. Additionally, the attachment of external reflectors could enhance the DSSS efficiency by 10.4%
obtaining daily yield of 9.16 L and 6.63 L during the summer and winter [84]. Elashmawy [85] reached 4.27 L/m2 and 32.35%. daily yield and thermal efficiency, respectively by using tubular SS with a parapolice concentrator which led to rising the basin temperature to maximumly 102 ◦C.
Furthermore, as known, the nanofluids (NFs) have better thermo- physical characteristics than the pure base fluids. Hence, NFs have been involved in SSs to boost the evaporation rates [48,65,86]. Besides, nanoparticles (NPs) can be involved in SSs as heat localization layer or can be involved in surface coating [87,88]. Sharshir et al. [36]
mentioned that using NFs in SSs with existed cover cooling could enhance the SS distillate by 57.6%. In addition, using NPs in active SS resulted in up to 140% enhancement in yield, with respect to passive SS
as concluded by Abd Elaziz et al.[89]. Kandeal et al. [90] reported that using metallic beds immersed in NF and attached to nano-enhanced PCM resulted in yield increase of 113%. Sharshir et al. [48] used CuO- NF in order to augment the thermo-economic performance of a pyra- mid SS. A maximum productivity and thermal efficiency of 72.95% and 77.9%, respectively.
According to the previous review, an efficient SS should have enhanced condensation and evaporation processes. That can be ach- ieved via changing the thermal design: shape or components. Along with that, in the current research, a new trapezoidal pyramid SS (TrPSS) was developed. The proposed design was provided with central trapezoidal pyramidal wick structure, that was investigated in the first case (TrPSS- I) compared to conventional SS (SS). The design merged between two features: collecting radiation from all direction and increasing the vapor generation surface area. In addition, other methodologies were involved to uplift the condensation and evaporation rates. In the second case, TrPSS-II, glass cooling unit was involved. Moreover, the third case (TrPSS-III) contained four external reflectors to concentrate the radia- tion on the wick, without cooling. Then, the cooling unit was applied in the fourth case (TrPSS-IV) to obtain enhanced evapo- ration–condensation regime. Finally, TrPSS-V, nanofluid of copper oxide (NF-CuO) was used instead of the saline water to obtain further improvement in the vapor generation. Besides, the thermo-economic assessment was conducted via determining the energy and exergy effi- ciencies, and distillate cost.
2. Experimental setup and apparatuses 2.1. Experimental setup
A new solar still design with various modifications was tested under climate condition of Kafrelsheikh City, Egypt (31.1030◦N, 30.9397◦E), during 2021 Summer. The tests were conducted for many days, from 9:00 to 18:00, to confirm the stability of the measurements and the obtained enhancements. On other words, each separate case was repeatedly tried to assure the results.
The experiments aimed to compare the new design (TrPSS) to a conventional single slope SS (CSS) as given in Fig. 1. First, the CSS had the common shape having a black-painted metallic basin (1.5 mm thickness, 0.25 m2 projected area, 160 mm front height, and 450 mm backside height) with glass lid (30◦ inclination angle and 3.5 mm thickness). The whole outer surfaces (bottom and sides) were thermally insulted with fibreglass. On the other hand, the new proposed design (TrPSS) had a black-coated square metallic basin (1.5 mm thickness, Nomenclature
A Yearly fixed cost, $ Ag Area of the glass, m2 CEE Cumulative exergy efficiency CTE Cumulative thermal efficiency CSS Traditional solar still CuO Copper oxide
Nf-CuO Copper oxide nanofluid NPs Nanoparticles
SS Solar still
TrPSS Trapezoidal solar still TrPSS-I First modification TrPSS -II Second modification TrPSS -III Third modification TrPSS -IV Fourth modification TrPSS -V Fifth modification WHO World health organization
FC Installed cost $ A/P Capital recovery ASv Salvage value, $ AT Annual total cost, $ EXin Input of energy, W EXout Output of exergy, W
LC Cost of one liter of freshwater mf Instantaneous yield output
MOC Yearly operating and maintenance costs, $ mwA Yearly output yield, liter
I(t) Hourly solar radiation, W/m2 L Latent heat of vaporization, J/Kg K S Salvage value
Greek
ηhr Hourly thermal efficiency ηEX Hourly exergy efficiency εeff Effective emissivity
0.64 m2 area, and 15 cm side height), that was insulated with fibreglass.
The glass cover lid had a shape of four-sided trapezoidal pyramid with height of 40 cm, bottom dimensions same as the basin (80 ×80 cm), and upper dimensions of (40 ×40 cm). The top glass segment was inclined at 5◦ to allow the condensate flow towards the side segments without falling to the basin. Five different modifications were applied at the TrPSS:
i- TrPSS-I: using trapezoidal pyramid of hang wick at the centre of the basin having bottom, top, and height of (40 ×40 cm), (20 × 20 cm), and 35 cm. The aim of integrating the wick trapezoidal pyramid is increasing the surface area exposed to radiation. All sides of wick structure were kept under uniform distribution water feeding.
ii- TrPSS-II: glass cooling technique with a rate of 4 L/hr was involved at the previous case to enhance the condensation pro- cess. The glass cooling depended on a very simple design of four pipe containing many small openings placed on each edge (sides and upper base) of the glass cover of the TrPSS.
iii- TrPSS-III: four external manually adjustable reflectors were attached to the TrPSS-I to concentrate the radiation on the wick structure to augment the evaporation. The number and the inclining angle of the reflectors were adjusted manually adjusted along the day.
iv- TrPSS-IV: the third case was hybrid with glass cooling unit.
v- TrPSS-V: The CuO NP was added to the feed water to make nanofluids (NF-CuO) along with the previous combination and the CuO NPs was about 30 nm. The concentration of the NF-CuO was 1.5 wt%.
2.2. Apparatuses
The system was well equipped with to hourly record the data with calibrated devices having the specifications presented in Table 1.
Different variables were measured; namely: air speed, freshwater pro- ductivity, solar radiation, dimensions, and the temperatures of wick, glass cover, salty water, and the ambient. The uncertainties (UR) of calculated performance indicators were obtained via the following equation considering the result (R) is a function of the independent Fig. 1.Experiment setup views: (a) real, and (b) schematic.
variables (x1, x2, x3, …….…..., xn) and the variables’ uncertainty are as follows (u1, u2, u3, …..., un) [91]:.
UR=
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[(∂R
∂x1
u1
)2 +
(∂R
∂x2
u2
)2 +⋯+
(∂R
∂xn
un
)2]
√√
√√ (1)
3. Thermal performance assessment
The thermal performance of each case was assessed, for both TrPSS and CSS, in terms of exergetic and energetic efficiencies, as presented in the following subsections.
(i) Thermal energy efficiency
Generally, for energy systems, thermal efficiency is calculated to show the ability of the system to benefit from the input energy. Herein, for SSs, the hourly (ηhr) and daily (ηd) efficiencies were calculated as follows [92,93]:
ηhr= m˙w×L (I(t) ×Ag
)×3600, (2)
ηd=
∑(
m˙w×L )
∑( (I(t) ×Ag
)×3600) (3)
where (m˙w) is the potable water hourly productivity in (kg/hr), (I(t)) is the hourly normal solar radiation per unit area in (W/m2) on the glass of the CSS, (Ag) is the area of glass in (m2), and (L) is the water latent heat of vaporisation in (J/Kg), which is calculated by [94]:
L =2.5019 ×106 –2.40706 ×103 ×Tk +1.192217 ×Tk 2-–15.863 ×10- 3 × Tk3. (4) where (Tk) is the wick temperature in ◦C.
(ii) exergy efficiency
The exergy calculation is very useful for designers to find ways to develop the thermal system as it evaluates the energy destruction within the system. The hourly (ηhr-EX) and daily (ηd-EX) exergy efficiency calculation can be conducted as follows [92,93]:
ηhr−EX=Exergyoutput(EXout(t))
Exergyintput(EXin(t)) (5)
ηd−EX=
∑∑[Exergyoutput(EXout(t))]
[Exergyintput(EXin(t)) ] (6)
EXout(t) =m3600˙w×L× (
1− TTa
k
)
, and (7).
EXin=( I(t) ×Ag
)× [
1− 4 3×
(Ta
Ts
) +1
3× (Ta
Ts
)4]
(8)
where (EXout(t)) is the hourly exergy output, (EXin(t)) is the hourly exergy input, (Ta) is the ambient temperature in [K], and (Ts) is the temperature of the sun ~6000 K.
4. Cost evaluation
The economic analysis is so important to accept the applicability of any modification. The freshwater cost ($/L) was calculated as follows [92].
LC= AT
m˙wA (9)
where (Lc) is the pure price per one litter of production water (AT) is the total yearly payment containing the maintenance and operation cost (MOC), salvage value (ASv), and the fixed annul payment (A) (Eqn. (10)), and (m˙wA)is the amount of water produced over a year assuming that the system works 270 days/year.
AT=A+MOC− ASV (10)
A=Fc×A
P (11)
where (FC) is the fixed cost, and (AP) is the capital recovery which is a function of the yearly interest value (i) and the expected work period (n) [52], by assuming 12% interest rate and 10-year life working,
AP(12%,10) =0.17
MOC=0.3×AT (12)
ASV=S×A
F (13)
where (S) is the salvage value and equals to 20% (Fc), and (AF) is the sinking fund, then AF(12%,10) =0.05.
5. Results and discussion
The measurement stability was affirmed by repeating each separate case tests many days. Herein, in the following experimental results, the data of a whole day (9:00 – 18:00) for each case is presented to illustrate the system performance. The operating conditions (weather data), sys- tem temperatures, obtained yield was recorded for TrPSS and CSS simultaneously.
5.1. Performance of TrPSS with hang wick: TrPSS-I
The recorded operating weather conditions are given in Fig. 2 (a). As shown, the radiation had normal distribution values throughout the day:
start (573 W/m2 at 9:00), peak (890 W/m2 at 12:00), and end (150 W/
m2 at 18:00) and the solar irradiance I(t) refer to the perpendicular solar radiation on the inclined glass cover of the CSS in the south direction. On the other hand, the surrounding temperature showed semi-stable value with start and end values of 32 ◦C, and maximum value of 36 ◦C. On contrary, the wind speed randomly varied (fluctuated) from 0.5 to 1.5 m/s.
For the units (TrPSS-I and CSS), a Fig. 2 (b) shows the variation of system’s temperatures during the day, which had the same profile of insolation with delay of peak values for 1 hr. First, for evaporation media, the wick (TrPSS-I) had higher temperature values than that of water (CSS) with obvious difference, and the highest difference was 6.7 ◦C at 9:00. The peak values were recorded at 13:00 of 61 and 58 ◦C for TrPSS-I (wick) and CSS (water), respectively. Accordingly, the glass temperature of TrPSS-I was always higher than that of CSS due to the higher vapor temperature. The maximum values were 48 and 45.5 ◦C at 13:00 for the cover of TrPSS-I and CSS, respectively, and the largest Table 1
Experiment measurements devices, models, ranges, accuracies, and uncertainties.
Variable Device Model Accuracy Range Error,
% Temperature, ◦C Thermocouple Type-K ±0.1 − 50 –
200
±1 Solar radiation,
W/m2 Solar Radiation
Meter TES-
1333R ±10 0 –
2000 ±0.456 Air Speed, m/s Anemometer GM816 ±0.1 0.1 –
30
±2.7 Water
Productivity, mL
Graded
Cylinder – ±5 0 –
5000
±2
System Dimensions, mm
Measuring Tape – ±1 0 –
5000
±1.24
difference between them was 5 ◦C at 9:00. It is well noticed that the proposed design led to higher evaporation surface temperature because it was exposed to the radiation from all sides, besides having higher surface area. However, both units had close average values as the wick (TrPSS) and water (CSS) had average values of 51.5 and 48.26 ◦C, respectively, whereas the glass had average temperatures of 40.63 and 38.54 ◦C.
The hourly and the accumulated freshwater production for TrPSS-I and CSS are provided in Fig. 2 (c). It obvious that TrPSS-I showed accelerated productivity after one operating hour as it distilled 0.28 L/
m2, likewise, 71.4% more than that of CSS (0.08 L/m2). The maximum productivity was achieved at 13:00 of 0.74 and 0.64 L/m2 for TrPSS-I and CSS, respectively. At last hour, despite the low radiation, the
TrPSS-I produced an acceptable value of 0.2 L/m2; whereas the CSS yield was 0.11 L/m2. The accumulated freshwater production was enhanced by 37.4% as the daily yield was 3.97 L/m2 and 2.89 L/m2 for TrPSS and CSS, respectively.
Furthermore, the determined energetic and exergetic performance is presented in Fig. 3 (a), and Fig. 3(b). The hourly energy efficiency continuously increased during the day, particularly for TrPSS-I. That was due to the accumulated heat in the units’ media (wick and water), which helped in obtaining output thermal energy (vaporization) despite the radiation declination. The maximum hourly energetic performance values were 89% (at 18:00) and 54.4% (at 17:00) for TrPSS-I and CSS, respectively. Moreover, the daily thermal efficiency was enhanced by 37% as it was 45.1 and 33% for TrPSS-I and CSS, respectively. The Fig. 2. Hourly measured parameters of TrPSS-I and CSS: (a) climate data, (b) system temperature, and (c) freshwater productivity.
Fig. 3. Thermal performance of TrPSS-I and CSS: (a) hourly energetic and exergetic efficiencies, (b) cumulative thermal and exergy efficiencies.
cumulative thermal efficiency (CTE) and cumulative exergy efficiency (CEE) represent the overall efficiencies until a certain hour. As shown in Fig. 3 (b), both CTE and CEE showed that the modified system was more effective even during the low solar intensity hours. The final CTE was enhanced by 37% as it was 45.1 and 33% for TrPSS-I and CSS, respec- tively. Whereas the final CEE was enhanced by 51.2%.
5.2. Performance of TrPSS with hang wick and cover cooling: TrPSS-II The operating weather conditions and system temperatures distri- bution during a test day of TrPSS-II are shown in Fig. 4. For the weather conditions, Fig. 4 (a), normal distribution was recorded with average and peak values of radiation, ambient temperature, and wind speed of (528.3, and 895) W/m2, (33, and 35) ◦C, and (1.5, and 2.5) m/s, respectively.
For the system temperatures, Fig. 4(b), similar to the previous case, the wick temperature (TrPSS-II) was always higher than that of water (CSS) with maximum different of 5.6 ◦C at 11:00. The peak values of evaporation surface temperature in TrPSS and CSS were 61, and 57 ◦C, respectively, whereas the average values were 51.8 and 48 ◦C, respec- tively. It can be noticed that these average values still close, this means that although the evaporation was enhanced, it was important to find a solution to obtain higher wick temperatures. Therefore, external re- flectors were proposed as discussed in the next case (TrPSS-III).
On the other hand, the integrated glass cooling units successfully reduced the glass temperature in TrPSS-II below that in CSS, in contrary to the previous case. This means that a high wick-glass temperature difference was obtained; hence, the natural convection could be increased. Besides, the condensation process was improved. The ob- tained reduction in cover temperature was, in average, about 5 ◦C (~14.2%) as the average values were of 35.5 and 40.54 ◦C for TrPSS-II and CSS, respectively.
Furthermore, the enhanced evaporation surface temperature and
decreased cover temperature led to good improvement of the yield as shown in Fig. 4(c). The productivity was rapidly increased as it was enhanced by about 250% in the beginning for TrPSS-II compared to CSS.
The peak productivity was 0.87, and 0.6 L/m2 for TrPSS-II, and CSS, respectively. Overall, the daily yield was higher in case of TrPSS-II by 62.07% (5.17 L/m2) than that of CSS (3.19 L/m2).
The evaluated thermal performance for both units is shown in Fig. 5.
As presented in Fig. 5 (a) and Fig. 5 (b), the energy and exergy effi- ciencies of TrPSS-II were much higher than that of CSS. The final CTE, and CEE were (55.4%, and 3.87%), and (34.5%, and 2.01%) for TrPSS-II and CSS, respectively. In other words, during the day, the CTE was boosted by 60.6%, whereas the CEE was augmented by 92.5%.
5.3. Performance of TrPSS with hang wick and reflectors: TrPSS-III.
The main aim of attaching reflectors is concentrating the radiation on the wick structure to enhance the evaporation process. As mentioned, four mirrors were utilized facing each side of the trapezoidal pyramidal wick. The hourly measured parameters are given in Fig. 6. The presented day was clear sunny one, as shown in Fig. 6(a) with average and maximum insolation, air temperature, and air speed of (521.7, and 905) W/m2, (32, and 34) ◦C, and (0.7, and 1.1) m/s, respectively.
The units’ temperatures are plotted in Fig. 6(b), in which the efficacy of integrated mirror is obvious as the wick temperature was much uplifted so that the difference between wick (TrPSS-III) and water (CSS) reached sometimes 22 ◦C (~44% increase). The maximum and average temperatures were (82, and 63.35) ◦C, and (65, and 49.27) ◦C for wick (TrPSS-III) and water (CSS), respectively. Hence, it can be confirmed that the added reflectors successfully concentrated the radiation so that the temperature was enhanced, in average, by 28.6%. On the other hand, as the vapor temperature was high, the glass cover of TrPSS-III was much larger than that of CSS by about 12.1%, in average. The maximum and average cover temperatures were (60, and 46.18) ◦C, and
Fig. 4.Hourly measured parameters of TrPSS-II and CSS: (a) weather data, (b) system temperature, and (c) freshwater productivity.
(52, and 41.2) ◦C. The increase of glass temperature might have a negative impact on the condensation. Therefore, a glass cooling tech- nique was applied in the fourth case (TrPSS-IV) along with the existence of mirrors.
Accordingly, due to the evaporation enhancement, the yield was highly improved, as shown in Fig. 6(c). The productivity augmentation in the beginning reached 462.5% with respect to CSS, and the peak production rate of TrPSS-III was 1.2 L/m2 compared to 0.68 L/m2 for CSS. For the daily production, the TrPSS-III achieved 6.19 L/m2 that was higher than CSS (3.2 L/m2) by 93.4%.
Moreover, the higher production and temperature results in higher
output energy, and output exergy, from the TrPSS-III than CSS. There- fore, as shown in Fig. 7 the thermal performance was significantly boosted. For the efficiencies of TrPSS-III compared to CSS, Fig. 7 (a) and Fig. 7 (b). As noticed, the TrPSS-II always had higher values than that of CSS. Finally, the CTE and CEE were enhanced by 90.2 and 204%, respectively.
5.4. Performance of TrPSS with hang wick, reflectors, and cover cooling:
TrPSS-IV
Herein, in the 4th case (TrPSS-IV), the cover was cooled along with Fig. 5. TrPSS-II and CSS: (a) hourly energetic and exergetic efficiencies, (b) cumulative thermal performance.
Fig. 6.Hourly measured parameters of TrPSS-III and CSS: (a) weather data, (b) system temperature, and (c) freshwater productivity.
the presence of external mirrors to augment the condensation process besides the augmented evaporation. In other meaning, two effects were intended: high wick temperature, and low glass cover temperature. As given in Fig. 8(a), the experiment was conducted in a clear day with average insolation of 515 W/m2 and average air speed and temperature of 2.3 m/s, and 33.7 ◦C. On the other hand, a plotted in Fig. 8(b), due to the mirror existence, the wick (TrPSS-IV) temperature was higher than water (CSS) by 20.88 %, in average. This finding was close to the pre- vious case; therefore, the cooling effect is the most purpose in case. As shown, the glass temperature of TrPSS-IV was close to that of CSS during low radiation hours. But it was much lower in high insolation hours,
which had higher evaporation rates. The average glass temperatures were 39.1, and 41.3 ◦C for TrPSS-IV and CSS, respectively.
Due to the combined effect of mirrors and cooling unit, three benefits were obtained: high evaporation rate, high condensation rate, and enhanced natural convection due to the uplifted wick-glass temperature difference. As a result, as shown in Fig. 8(c), the productivity was noticeably improved as the daily yield of TrPSS-IV was 7.19 L/m2 compared to 3.23 L/m2 for CSS, i.e., it was improved by 122.6 %.
For the calculated thermal performance, the efficiencies and HT coefficients of TrPSS-IV were considerably larger than that of CSS, which can be noticed from Fig. 9. The CTE and CEE are presented in Fig. 9 (b).
Fig. 7.(a) Thermal performance of TrPSS-III and CSS: (a) hourly energetic and exergetic efficiencies, (b) cumulative thermal performance.
Fig. 8.Hourly measured parameters of TrPSS-IV and CSS: (a) weather data, (b) system temperature, and (c) freshwater productivity.
As noticed, the TrPSS-II always had higher values than that of CSS.
Finally, the CTE and CEE were enhanced by 120 and 228.4%, respectively.
5.5. Performance of TrPSS with hang wick, reflectors, cover cooling, and nanofluid: TrPSS-V
As known, the wick is a high capillarity material that is used to allow thin-film evaporation. On the same time, the water has resistance to capillary effect. Therefore, to obtain a good water rise by the wick, a NF- CuO was utilized in the feed of TrPSS instead of saline water only.
The test was conducted in the climate conditions shown in Fig. 10(a).
The insolation during this day had a maximum and average intensities of 895, and 540.7 W/m2. Besides, the ambient air had average speed and temperature of 1.8 m/s and 33.3 ◦C. For the systems’ temperatures, given in Fig. 10(b), the wick (TrPSS-V) and water (CSS) had average temperatures of 62.25 and 50.1 ◦C, i.e., the evaporation surface tem- perature was uplifted by 24.25 %. Moreover, the average glass
temperatures were 39.82 and 41.6 ◦C.
It is well obvious that all these values are very close to the previous case (TrPSS-IV), which may give a sense of insignificant enhancement.
But the main benefit here is the amount of rising water due to the decrease surface tension (low capillarity resistance). This claim could be confirmed from the values of accumulated yield, shown in Fig. 10(C).
The daily freshwater amount reached 7.74, and 3.13 L/m2 for TrPSS-V and CSS, respectively, i.e., it was boosted by 147.3%. This result as- sures the suggested claim of increased water amount risen by capillarity due to surface tension decrease. Another possible reason for the supe- riority of this case performance over the previous case is that the trap- ezoidal wick structure is placed in the basin centre, therefor, the residual basin area may participate in evaporation. So, by addition of NF-CuO, the water thermal properties are enhanced, and the residual area evaporation is increased.
Moreover, due to the enhanced freshwater amount, the thermal en- ergy and exergy efficiencies was enhanced, shown in Fig. 11 (a), and Fig. (b), which represents the instantaneous and cumulative values, Fig. 9.(a) Thermal performance of TrPSS-IV and CSS: (a) hourly energetic and exergetic efficiencies, (b) cumulative thermal performance.
Fig. 10.Hourly measured parameters of TrPSS-V and CSS: (a) weather data, (b) system temperature, and (c) freshwater output.
respectively. Their daily average values were 83.46% and 8.6% for TrPSS-V compared to 34.18 and 2.29% for CSS. In other meaning, the TrPSS-IV had significant enhancements than CSS by 144.2 % (energy efficiency) and 275.5% (exergy efficiency).
5.6. Cost analysis
The net production cost ($/L) was estimated for the five cases and the results are provided in Table 2. The values confirmed the feasibility of the proposed design and all modifications. Compared to CSS, the cost was reduced by 16.03, 31.94, 34.18, 40.76, and 42.58% for TrPSS-I, TrPSS-II, TrPSS-III, TrPSS-IV and TrPSS-V, respectively.
Finally, the proposed new design (TrPSS) showed competitive acceptable findings from all points of views: yield, efficiency, and cost.
This can be obvious from the comparison with other published relevant works, given in Table 3. From the cost point of view, TrPSS-V showed a fresh water price of 0.011 $/L which shows a 70.3, 39, and 62% saving in cost compared to Pal et al. [95], Sharshir et al. [31] and Sharshir et al.
[96], and Wassouf et al. [97], respectively. For the daily yield assess- ment, TrPSS-V had daily yield of 7.74 L/m2 which was higher by 323, 18.7, 17.3% than the systems of Wassouf et al. [97], Kandeal et al. [90], and Kabeel et al. [98]. Additionally, from the thermal efficiency point of view, TrPSS-V had daily value of 83.46% which, was higher by 262%
than that of Pal et al. [95], 59% than that of Sharshir et al. [96], and 40.34% compared to Elmaadawy et al. [99].
6. Conclusions
In this manuscript, a new proposed design of trapezoidal pyramid solar still (TrPSS) was examined compared to a conventional one (CSS).
The TrPSS was provided with internal and external components to enhance its performance. First, TrPSS-I was provided with a trapezoidal pyramidal wick structure placed in the basin central area. Then, to enhance the condensation process, cover cooling unit was utilized (TrPSS-II). Third, in the TrPSS-III, external reflectors were fixed opposite to each side of the TrPSS to concentrate the radiation on the evaporation surface. Fourth, the third modification was supplied with cover cooling
to boost both evaporation and condensation processes (TrPSS-IV).
Finally, in TrPSS-V, a CuO nanofluid (NF-CuO) was utilized in the basin to enhance the water thermo-physical properties and reduce the surface tension to facilitate the capillary effect. Based on the experimental re- sults, the thermal performance and cost analysis were determined. Sig- nificant improvements were obtained compared to conventional one, it can be summarised as follows:
• The productivity enhancements reached 37.4, 61.07, 93.4, 122.6, and 147.3% for TrPSS-I – V, respectively.
Fig. 11.Thermal performance of TrPSS-V and CSS: (a) hourly energetic and exergetic efficiencies, (b) cumulative thermal performance.
Table 2
Cost analysis for CSS and all proposed cases of TrPSS.
Item CSS TrPSS-I TrPSS-II TrPSS-III TrPSS-IV TrPSS-V
CF, $ 80 90 95 110 115 120
A, $ 12.9152 14.5296 15.3368 17.7584 18.5656 19.3728
MOC, $ 3.87456 4.35888 4.60104 5.32752 5.56968 5.81184
ASV, $ 0.66304 0.74592 0.78736 0.91168 0.95312 0.99456
AT, $ 16.12672 18.14256 19.15048 22.17424 23.18216 24.19008
mwA, L/year 800 1071.9 1395.9 1671.3 1941.3 2089.8
LTC, $/L 0.020158 0.016926 0.013719 0.013268 0.011942 0.011575
Table 3
Comparison of current results with other relevant published works.
Reference Design and
modification Daily thermal efficiency, % Daily
output, L/
m2
Cost per litre, $/L
Present study CSS 33 3 0.020
TrPSS-I 45.10 3.97 0.016
TrPSS-II 55.74 5.17 0.013
TrPSS-III 66.05 6.19 0.013
TrPSS-IV 75.17 7.19 0.011
TrPSS-V 83.46 7.74 0.011
Kandeal et al.
[90] DSSS with nano additives and thermal storage
68 6.52 0.011
Pal et al. [95] DSSS with multi
wick 23.03% 4.5 0.037
Sharshir et al.
[31] Stepped basin with
black carbon 60.20% 4.46 0.018
Kabeel et al.
[98] PSS with (TiO2-NPs) – 6.6 0.0107
Wassouf et al.
[97] Pyramidal SS – 2.394 0.029
Elmaadawy
et al. [99] nano additives, wick, and thermal storage
59.47 4.91 0.0147
Sharshir et al.
[96] SS with CP-NPs and
Floating coal 52.5 5.23 0.018
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