Self-report techniques basically include questionnaires, diaries, and focus groups (Isomursu et al.2007, p. 427). Since emotions might be difficult to verbalize, in self-report techniques, questionnaires for data collection might use not only verbal scales (protocols), but also non-verbal ones (pictograms) (Desmet 2002). Self Assessment Manikin (SAM) and Emocards (Desmet et al.2001) are two examples of measurement through pictograms used in marketing research to understand consumption emotions or emotional responses related to advertising stimuli, based on pictures of facial expressions (Isomursu et al. 2007, p. 427). Notwith- standing the strength of investigating the subjective nature of feelings, self-reported techniques have some weaknesses, mainly since they imply a cognitive understand- ing of the scales and emotional states (in the form of lexical units or pictures) by interviewees. Moreover, the self-judgment process might lead to some bias in emotion measurement (Isomursu et al. 2007). Finally, these techniques often imply data collection after emotional arousal has happened, which is thought to have a distortive effect, and recalling feelingsaboutemotions and not emotionsper se(Russell2003; Kim and Fesenmaier2015a). To overcome some of these weak- nesses in self-reporting, digital technologies have provided some helpful instru- ments. The 3E method, based on free drawing responses on digital interfaces (Ta¨hti and Arhippainen2004), helps overcome the cognition bias in pre-defined categories of emotions; the Mobile Feedback Application (Arhippainen et al.2004), where the feedback on the questionnaire is given in real-time, helps overcome biases due to post-experience reporting; finally the Experience Clip Method (Isomursu et al.2004), using video observation of customer couples during experience con- sumption, helps to partly overcome self-judgment biases.
Parallel to self-reporting techniques, observation techniques are common methods to measure emotional states (Kim and Fesenmaier2015a, p. 422). They tend to record the more objective physiological/expressive nature of emotional responses, and focus on behavior (facial expressions, speech, gestures) or neuro- physiological responses (skin conductance, body responses: pulse rate, blood pres- sure, brain activity). The advantages of observation techniques are that they usually happen in real-time and they can record the evolutionary process of emotion creation. Nevertheless, they often require specific expertise, special (sometimes bulky) equipment, and a laboratory environment; thus the emotional reaction might be biased by the measurement system and the artificial context (Kim and Fesenmaier2015a,b).
Since the construct of emotion is defined according to different perspectives, and given the fact that “experiential, physiological, and behavioral measures are all relevant to understanding emotion and cannot be assumed to be interchangeable”
46 A. Scuttari and H. Pechlaner
(Mauss and Robinson2009, p. 522), there is no best type of measurement to use in applied research. Rather a preferred measurement technique is chosen according to the theoretical framework used and the type of emotional response to be measured (see Table1). In brief, we could say that cognitive theories tend to use dimensional scales and rely on self-report techniques; non-cognitive theories refer to categorical scales and observation techniques. Nevertheless, recent studies tend to overcome these traditional approaches and combine self-reported and observation approaches, mainly because it was found that objective measurement of physiological arousal helps with investigating how cognition works in the appraisal process. Initial studies on the correlation between cognitive and physiological responses reveal that appraisal per se is relevant, since there is no perfect congruence between observed and self-reported responses (Lee and Kyle 2012; Kim and Fesenmaier 2015a,b). In the following sections we focus on the application of these theoretical frameworks in tourism research, analyzing the actual panorama of emotion research in tourism, and building a framework for future research.
5 Emotions and Tourism Experiences
Emotions are part of consumer experiences (Pine and Gilmore2011) and are also relevant in tourist experiences (Aho2001; Morgan et al.2010). A tourist experience is in fact “an individual’s subjective evaluation and undergoing of events (i.e., affective, cognitive, and behavioral) related to his/her tourist activities, which begins before (i.e. planning and preparation), during (i.e. at the destination), and after the trip (i.e. recollection)” (Tung and Ritchie 2011, p. 3). Therefore the relationship between emotions and tourism experiences relies on the fact that emotional responses occur all along the tourist experience, in relation to different Table 1 Measuring emotions: theoretical approaches and emotional responses
Measurement techniques Observation
Self- report Content-related theories Cognitive appraisal theories x
Affect as information theories (cognitive)
x James-Lange theory (non-cognitive) x
Cannon-Bard theory (non-cognitive) x Structure-related
theories
Categorical theories x
Dimensional theories x
Hierarchical theories x x
Emotional responses Expressive response x
Physiological response x x
Subjective experience x
Emotions in Tourism: From Consumer Behavior to Destination Management 47
interactions and interfaces. In fact, no single emotional state is related to an entire tourist experience, but rather a sequence of emotions associated with corresponding external stimuli. To understand when emotional responses occur in tourist experi- ences, it is worth analyzing the possible nature of their elicitation.
According to the literature, elicitation occurs in relation to on-trip interactions with the landscape (Hosany2012; Hosany et al.2005; Hosany and Gilbert2010), artificial environments (Barsky 2002; Han et al. 2009) or humans (Hosany and Gilbert2010). Moreover, it may also occur in a post-trip phase, e.g. through sharing vacation experiences on social media (Kim and Fesenmaier2015b, pp. 514–515) or through memories and nostalgia (Kim et al. 2011). Despite the relevance of emotions in tourist experience at the interface between destination offer (space or hosting communities) and consumers (tourists), and despite the cross-cutting nature during different stages of consumption (mainly on- and post-trip), emotions have been mainly studied from the single guest’s perspective (Nawijn et al.2013, p. 427) and in relation to post-consumption behavior (Malone et al.2014). In fact, emotion was initially used as anevaluative construct associated to post-consumption behav- ior(Malone et al.2014, pp. 514–515). For instance, applying cognitive appraisal theories, it has been proven that positive emotional states have an effect on customer satisfaction (del Bosque and Martı´n2008, p. 522; Hosany and Prayag 2013, p. 522; Martı´nez Caro et al.2007, p. 522; Phillips and Baumgartner2002, p. 522), on loyalty (Barsky2002, p. 522; Han et al.2009, p. 522) and on behavioral intentions (Bigne´ et al.2005, p. 522).
Only sparse, recent and very specific contributions have assessedpre-consump- tion and consumption behavior. For instance, Malone and her colleagues postulated the role of pre-consumption emotions as motivators for choosing ethical tourism holidays (Malone et al. 2014, pp. 514–515), while Sirakaya and his colleagues discovered that—as it is argued in the affect-as information theory—mood can mediate emotional and cognitive responses to a holiday experience (Sirakaya et al.2004). Hosany (2012, pp. 514–515) proposed three determinants of emotional appraisal while on vacation (pleasantness, goal congruence, and internal self- compatibility) and three main emotional states (joy, love, and positive surprise).
Nawijn and colleagues confirmed the positive nature of emotional states during a holiday (Nawijn et al.2013, p. 427) and investigated their dynamic nature.
This recent focus on consumption behaviour on-trip has opened up new horizons for emotional research that go far beyond consumer behaviour studies, and have involved e.g. emotional geography or emotional engineering in service design. For instance, Hosany and colleagues applied emotion research to tourism destinations and studied the affective value of locations (Hosany and Prayag2013, pp. 514–515;
Hosany and Gilbert2010, pp. 514–515; Hosany et al.2005, pp. 514–515; Hosany 2012, pp. 514–515), while Kim and Fesenmaier (2015a, pp. 514–515) provided
“emotion maps” derived from real-time measurement of experiences using dermal responses. Finally, studies on experience design recently aimed at increasing affective connections between the service provider and the consumer (Tussyadiah 2014, p. 427) through designing emotional exchanges rather than service encoun- ters. Notwithstanding this pioneer research, we argue that there is more room to
48 A. Scuttari and H. Pechlaner
explore emotional states at the interface between destination management studies and consumer behavior studies. In the next section we provide a framework to assess future research.
6 A Framework to Investigate Emotion at the Interface Between Tourism Demand and Supply
The arousal of emotions in tourism experiences occurs through an interaction between consumer and destination, i.e. between tourism demand and supply. This interaction occurs before, during and after tourism trips and is sometimes mediated through digital interfaces (e.g. websites, applications, booking/ranking portals, social media). Emotions that arise from this interaction have proved to be important for the satisfaction of tourists and relevant to their loyalty to destinations. Never- theless, the interactionper seis scarcely explored in tourism literature or applied research. To fill this gap, we provide a framework to assess the emotion-based interface between consumer and destination, and thus create a connection between tourism management/marketing research and consumer behavior studies (see Fig.1). We identify three main stages where emotion may occur: pre-trip(antici- pated emotions), on-trip(consumption emotions)and post-trip(post-consumption emotions). These different phases of emotional arousal have often been neglected and only consumption emotions have been addressed, which in our opinion is a limiting approach. Moreover, even when focusing on consumption emotions, their antecedents have rarely been studied, while their consequences (in terms of satis- faction and loyalty) are widely explored. Given these limitations, we propose investigating several domains of consumer behavior, destination management studies, and the interface between the two.
With regard to consumer behavior, three main aspects might be relevant:
– emotional significance of tourism activities, both in natural or artificial environ- ments (e.g. outdoor sports, adventure tourism, cultural tourism);
– tourists’emotional responses during specific service encounters (e.g. encounters with hotel hosts or local service providers);
– social interactions among tourists before, during or after their holidays (e.g. emotion in group behavior, emotional influences of online sharing and service evaluation, word of mouth).
These could offer new insights into understanding behavioral patterns of con- sumption, identifying relevant dynamics in social interactions, and thus designing emotion-based consumption profiles. Concerning destination management and marketing, four main areas of interest arise:
– investigating emotional reactions to promotional or advertising material and more generally assessing the affective meaning of the destination brand (antic- ipated emotions) as well as its impact on purchase-behavior;
Emotions in Tourism: From Consumer Behavior to Destination Management 49
– including emotion engineering in tourism product/service design (e.g. considering “emotional chains of reactions”, see e.g. (Stacey and Tether 2015);
– influencing emotional feedbacks in critical moments of the service encounter (e.g. peak season, service recovery);
– managing emotional responses in post-consumption online behavior (e.g. relationship marketing and social interactions on online ranking portals).
Including the affective component in destination management and marketing means being able to not only overcome the cognitive-based service quality para- digm, but also embrace the affective-based experience economy and design tourism products accordingly.
7 Concluding Remarks
Emotion research has entered the tourism research field through market research on post-consumption behavior. Nowadays it is expanding towards pre-consumption and consumption behavior, and is exploring innovative real-time observation tech- niques. Here, we draw a picture of the main interpretations, theories, and Fig. 1 A framework of emotion at the interface between tourism demand and supply
50 A. Scuttari and H. Pechlaner
measurement techniques of emotion research and investigate their application and applicability in tourism studies. We argue that there is scope for greater expansion of emotion research in tourism, both in consumer behavior studies (e.g. emotional valence of specific activities, emotion in face-to-face service encounters), and—
most importantly—in destination management and marketing studies (e.g. destination image and branding, service design, relationship marketing, and hospitality research with specific consideration to host-guest relationships). Digital technologies are relevant in this context for two main reasons: they increasingly mediate the interaction between host and guest in pre- and post-trip phases and they offer innovative techniques to measure emotional responses. Nevertheless, these techniques are often observation-based and need the parallel use of self-reported techniques to catch the cognitive aspects related to emotion arousal. Therefore, besides the need to apply emotion research in wider contexts, we identify a need to use self-reported and observation techniques in a complementary manner, in order to capture cognitive, physiological, and expressive emotional states. The connec- tion between tourism demand and supply through emotion research, as well as the integration of observation and self-reporting techniques are two conditions required to shift from a cognitive-centered and service-based perspective of tourism towards a cognitive-affective and emotion-based perspective, which recognizes the affec- tive nature of tourist experiences. This shift is only possible if an interdisciplinary approach is employed in tourism research, which encourages applying theoretical frameworks based on psychological studies to traditional tourism management and marketing approaches, encouraging applied research based on ICT-tools for emo- tion measurement.
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Emotions in Tourism: From Consumer Behavior to Destination Management 53
Authenticity for Tourism Design and Experience
Jillian M. Rickly and Scott McCabe
Abstract Traditionally, the role of design in tourism research has been oriented towards planning and designing spaces for tourism and recreational uses. In the context of the experience economy this process focuses on experience design so that spaces become stages in which experiences are enacted, performed and valued.
As a result the subjective and affective aspects of the experience have become somewhat neglected. Interestingly, while the debates surrounding the concept of authenticity in tourism studies are concerned with similar aspects of tourism experience, few in the design literature have engaged with the idea of authentic experience of place and culture. Because authenticity is a relational concept that functions to interlace notions of originality, genuineness, symbolism, encounter and experience it holds great value for tourism design and planning. As such, we propose a few questions to spark conversation: What is the role of authenticity in experience of place in the context of design thinking? Can we truly design spaces for authentic engagement? Is it ever possible to experience places authentically that have been designed? With the tremendous value placed on designing spaces for entertainment purposes, what value is placed on the‘real’or un-designed spaces of tourism? This chapter questions conceptions of experience design in the context of theories of authenticity and touristic experience, thereby aiming to bring a much contested concept into greater consideration in the more grounded debates of tourism planning.
Keywords Authenticity • Authentic engagement • Experience • Tourism design • Entertainment
1 Introduction: Understanding the Tourist Experience
Although‘experience’provides the fundamental basis for the development, design and marketing of tourism services, it is only more recently that the tourism industry has recognised that engaging and memorable experiences comprise the core of the
J.M. Rickly • S. McCabe (*)
Nottingham University Business School, University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus, Wollaton Road, Nottingham, NG8 1BB, UK
e-mail:[email protected];[email protected]
©Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017
D.R. Fesenmaier, Z. Xiang (eds.),Design Science in Tourism, Tourism on the Verge, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-42773-7_5
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