List of fi gures
1.3.3 Waste and pollution management
Key recommendations in brief:
* Try to limit waste to what you are able to process on site by adjustments to your resource lines;
Figure 1.18 Main sources of grey water.
* Select materials, construction and demolition technologies to limit amount of waste, emissions, pollution and site contamination at all stages of development and operations;
* Be mindful of waste and pollution caused by con- struction and maintenance materials’ extraction and manufacturing processes in places where they come from;
* Contain pollution at its source rather than deal with its broader effects.
Waste is a material which has, or is believed to have, no further use. While much effort is now direct- ed at using materials more efficiently and at recover- ing materials from what were previously regarded as waste streams, the waste minimisation and materials recovery industry will still take some time before it matches the scale and sophistication of the energy minimisation industry.
Resorts produce large quantities of waste – solid and liquid – from packaging to food scraps to cleaning and maintenance materials, some of which is toxic.
In many cases, this waste is collected in badly designed waste dumps, discarded directly into oceans or rivers, or simply dumped in areas out of sight of guests. In addition to visually degrading a destina- tion, improper waste disposal can lead to water and soil pollution through leaching of contaminants from waste piles. Poorly designed waste dumps can result in fires, odours, flies and ineffective contain- ment of wastes. Uncontrolled disposal of toxic items such as paint cans and batteries can severely contam- inate water, air and soil resources, threatening the environment and human health. Even where waste is disposed of legally, landfills have limited capacity, which is a particular problem on small islands.
There are many dangers related to waste and pol- lution generated in the daily operations of a resort.
Excessive or improper use, storage and disposal of various wastes can result in contamination of local environmental resources. Use of pesticides, fertilizers and herbicides for gardening and to control insects can lead to toxic run-off into streams, coastal waters and groundwater. Chemicals used for cleaning guest rooms or in recreational facilities such as swimming pools can contaminate local soil and water supplies, and may pose a potential hazard to human health.
Combustion of conventional fuels is the most significant single cause of environmental pollution.
Energy use in resort buildings – for air-conditioning, water heating, artificial lighting and a range of appli- ances – has the largest share of fuel consumption and resulting environmental pollution. As every kWh of electricity used produces 1 kg of CO2emission at the
power plant, eliminating the need for air-condition- ing, e.g. in just 50 guest units, would be equal to the reduction of the annual CO2 emission by around 500 tonnes.
An effective waste management programme can reduce waste removal problems and costs. Reuse and recycling of products can also cut operational costs.
Effective waste management can enhance a resort’s image by limiting visual degradation of the area. The visible effects of waste disposal are the most likely concern mentioned by guests regarding their holiday destinations. Waste can also decrease the quality of tourism resources by affecting marine life or even mak- ing the water unsuitable for recreational activities.
Waste deposited around the resort, as well as wa- ter and airborne pollution, would ultimately cause irreparable damage to the ecosystems while at the same time diminishing the value of the resource that attracted the resort’s guests. The resort’s design should therefore provide for safe disposal of waste generated at various phases of its operation. This includes solid and liquid waste coming as:
* construction waste, such as excavation material, building materials and equipment/transporta- tion-related waste;
* waste resulting from the chosen power generation method (e.g. water used for cooling of diesel gen- erators, accidental fuel spills, stored or transported fuel and oil discharges);
* waste related to the chosen transportation mode (e.g. oil and fuel spillage into water or on the ground, and fumes from combustion engines);
* organic waste and wastewater generated in food preparation and dishwashing processes;
* wastewater from the laundry;
* wastewater from bathrooms and toilets;
* other room or consumer waste;
* discarded packaging;
* excess rainwater collected from roofs and paved surfaces (and storm water run-off) around the resort.
Some of the liquid waste (so called ‘grey water’) and some solid waste (food scraps and other organic matter) can be treated on site. All other waste has to be disposed of by taking it away to approved places where disposal of such waste is relatively safe. The waste management plan developed for the resort should ensure that there is no adverse environmental or amenity effect on the resort site and its surround- ings or in the discharge area. It must be remembered that both liquid and solid wastes are capable of con- taminating surface and groundwater resources.
Therefore, waste disposal and even its processing
must be carried out in a considerate and responsible manner.
In very much the same way as with energy issues, the principal problem is not how to dispose of waste effectively and efficiently, but how to minimise the amount of waste to be disposed of. Recycling and reusing are among the methods best understood by operators and guests alike and, provided that ade- quate facilities are available, can lead to significant reductions in waste (Figure 1.19).
1.3.3.1 Reduce–Reuse–Recycle–Replace of waste and pollution management
Waste and pollution management should begin by reviewing the types and quantities of waste produced, and current disposal methods and costs at all stages of the resort’s life: from construction, through opera- tion, to demolition. The developed management pro- gramme should revolve around the three R’s: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. Only then, the fourth R (Replace) can be added.
Reduce (waste prevention) – means consuming and throwing away less; for example, purchasing du- rable and long-lasting goods, purchasing products and packaging which are free of toxins, and redesign- ing products that can be used again after the original use.
Reuse – by repairing items which still can be used;
donating the items to staff and local community rath- er than dumping them; finding new (alternative) uses for the products that have been already used – when- ever possible.
Recycle – turn the waste materials into a valuable resource by becoming new products, new materials and fodder for livestock or fertilisers supporting growth in plants.
Waste and pollution are generated at all stages of construction, operation and, eventually, demolition of a resort. At all these stages, effective management
requires that the four-step strategy (Reduce–Reuse–
Recycle–Replace) be implemented. Planning and design decisions, which should demonstrate this commitment, are aiming at matching the need with a carefully considered accurate response.
Reducing both energy and materials consump- tion can be achieved by increasing efficiency (doing more with less) or by doing less. In some circum- stances, doing less will be an important part of the experience being sought by clients. Reuse and recy- cling of materials are well-accepted and useful waste minimisation strategies, which often bring financial benefits.
Waste and pollution management starts at the planning and design stages by reducing the size of a building: optimum use of interior space through care- ful design will ensure that the overall building size, and resources used in constructing and operating it, are kept to a minimum. Considerate selection of the construction technology will minimise construction- site waste and protect trees and topsoil during works on site. This can be done by, for instance, limiting site works to the assembling of prefabricated elements.
Otherwise, all cutting operations to reduce waste and simplify sorting can be centralised, and bins for different types of usable waste set up. Building mate- rial use should be optimised: waste is minimised by avoiding structural over-design (using sizes larger than required in given conditions and circumstances) and designing for standard sizes. Careful planning also helps to protect vegetation from unnecessary damage during construction and avoid major changes to the geomorphology of the site. The fol- lowing strategies can be suggested:
* Designing for future reuse makes the structure last longer as well as adaptable to other uses, and mate- rials and components reusable or recyclable. Be- cause manufacturing is very energy-intensive, a product that lasts longer or requires less mainte- nance usually saves energy. Durable products also contribute less to our solid waste problems. Incor- porate waste recycling into the design.
* Use salvaged building materials and products made from recycled materials when possible and choose building materials with low embodied en- ergy, locally produced if available. Building pro- ducts made from recycled materials reduce solid waste problems, cut energy consumption in manufacturing and save on natural resource use.
A few examples of materials with recycled content are steel, cellulose insulation, reconstituted tim- ber in various forms and recycled plastic. Trans- portation is costly in both energy use and Figure 1.19 Benefits of a waste minimisation programme.
pollution generation. Look for locally produced materials (local softwoods or hardwoods, for ex- ample) to replace products imported to your area.
* Use detailing that will prevent soil contact and rot.
Where possible, use alternatives such as reconsti- tuted timber, engineered timber products and recycled plastic. Take measures to protect workers when cutting and handling pressure-treated wood and never burn scraps because of the toxins con- tained in them. Look into less toxic termite treat- ments and keep exposed parts of walls free from obstructions to discourage vermin and insects.
Avoid timber products produced from old-growth timber when acceptable alternatives exist. Lami- nated timbers can be substituted for old-growth solid wood. Minimise use of pressure-treated and old-growth timber, and avoid use of pesticides and other chemicals that may leach into the ground- water, as well as materials that will generate nox- ious, usually airborne, pollutants.
* Follow recommended practices to minimise po- tential health hazards. Plan electrical wiring and placement of electrical equipment to minimise electromagnetic field exposure. Design insect-re- sistant detailing that will require minimal use of pesticides.
* Biodegradable waste is an easier problem to solve.
Composting solutions are most appropriate for the eco-resort, bringing additional benefits to the surrounding landscape. Sewage-treatment solids, material retained on sewage-treatment screens, settled solids and biomass sludge can be composted or processed on site. Composting or- ganic wastes such as food scraps, leaves and tree cuttings is a great way to prevent waste. Compost or other organic material can be then used instead of chemical fertilisers. However, composting as well as earthworm farms, leach fields (artificial wetlands) and all other similar technologies requires considering them at planning stages.
The space must be set aside and, possibly, cor- doned off for sanitary reasons. On the other hand, it is often possible to use fish, geckos, iguanas or other animals to control insects, in place of dan- gerous pesticides and other chemicals, which does not involve any extra expense. Also, when making landscaping decisions, native plants that require less water, pesticides, fertilisers and herbicides should be chosen over imported species.
* Design room for waste bins in key areas, particu- larly by the beach and along nature trails. When using services of a disposal contractor, plan for a safe sanitary holding place until waste is picked up.
* For inert waste the processes are quite different.
There is potential to reuse some of the construc- tion and demolition waste created by these events.
Dirt and cleared trees can be relocated for use in other projects at the resort or elsewhere (some possible uses include flood levies, berms protect- ing against storm surge waves and roads). In de- molition, if done properly, the dismantling of the structure can lead to its reuse in other buildings.
All of the above help to prevent waste build-up on site or in landfill. Recyclable materials do not benefit the immediate environment in the resort, but if initiatives like recycling are implemented it would help to promote the resort’s ‘green’ image.