CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.5 Africanizing Development Strategies
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data. Thematic data analysis is in most cases used. Creswell (2009) defines themes mind-maps or set of ‘post-it’ notes.
Secondly, anthropological approaches are important in rural development researches. This is so because they allow for epistemological and phenomenological eyes in the interpretation of rural development data. In anthropological approaches researchers invest time and energy to have a first-hand experience of their perceived respondents. This counters biases associated with generalizations based observations that are divorced from the ‘feel’ of the actors.
Phenomenological and anthropological approaches allow for what Long & Long (1992) termed interface analysis. This is so because the development arena is a “battlefield of knowledge”, where different life-worlds converge.
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Table 2.1 Key Tenets of Eurocentric and Afrocentric Development Models
Basic Question Eurocentric Approaches Afrocentric Approaches 1. Theoretical
base
Informed by Modernization and Dependency theories. Traditional dominant western thinking.
Exclusivism/Individualism/Self
Centred/Self Development and Self- Fulfillment
Informed by Actor Oriented Paradigms. Local realities based thinking.
Inclusivism value based system/Collectivism
2. Information flow
Bureaucratic/Hierarchical flow of information
Informal/Free flow of information
3. Decision making
Decision Making based on power relations and adversarial
Decision Making is participatory and all-encompassing
4. Leadership style
Autocratic/Authoritarian top-down instructions of leaders
Inspiring and empowering leadership
5. Nature of relationship
Very formal relationships and personal touch
Insensitive relationships Instrumentalistic
Depersonalizing the individual Lack of a place for dreams of the people
Supportive/cooperative/intimate relationships and solidarity Sensitive relationships which creates a sense of belonging in everyone
Humanistic
Personal touch maintained Ensures achievement of the people’s dreams
Adapted from: Asante (1987; 1988); Koopman (1991); Khoza (1991; 1994); Mbigi (1994).
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Table 2.2 Development theories and their respective key features
Theory/period Assumption it holds Implications for rural development Modernization
Theory 1940s -1960s
a) Developed from positivism.
b) Subsistence economies needed transformation into modern capitalist societies.
c) Development was to start from the developed countries (the nucleus) and that would naturally trickle down to the developing countries.
d) The major agent of economic development is the elite who placed emphasis on order and control.
a) It gave prescriptions or a one best way of doing things.
b) It is incoherent. Its assumption was that all 3rd world countries are poor and traditional (with people who cannot think for themselves).
c) The trickle-down effect predicted never took place.
Dependency Theory 1980s 1990s
a) Inflows of foreign investment give rise to interests and profits (outflows from underdeveloped economies)
b) Asserts that the modernizing elites will inflict the land owners who serve their own interests not those of their people.
c) The world is divided into the centre and the periphery. The centre being the developed countries. The periphery depends on the centre.
a) Fails to acknowledge the tendency of exploitation of the periphery by the nucleus.
b) Looks at assumptions and not the practical part of development.
Actor-oriented Approach
a) Critical of the two theories above for their technological and institutional bias.
b) Gives importance to human agency i.e. individuals have capacity to bring about change in their own community.
c) Considers life-worlds i.e. human experience on the day to day basis.
d) Consider the interface analysis i.e. the negotiated outcomes of actors.
a) There is always an alternative view to structural analysis of development.
b) The point of departure is quest to understand social change in fullness.
c) Acknowledges resourcefulness of local people.
d) Development should be a negotiated outcome
Source: Coetzee (1989) and Long & Long (1992). Adapted from Marango (2011).
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Table 2.3 Assumptions underlying Western Science and Indigenous Knowledge Systems Variable
underlying assumption
Assumptions underlying Indigenous Knowledge
Assumptions underlying Western science
Nature Real, partly observable and testable. Real, observable and testable.
Space Space is real, has definite dimensions but is ultimately incommensurable.
Space is real and has definite dimensions.
Time Time is real, continuous and cyclical. Time is real and has continuous, irreversible series of duration
Matter Matter is real and exists within time, space and the ethereal realm.
Matter is real and exists within time and space.
Events Events have both natural and unnatural causes. All events have natural causes.
Universe The universe is orderly, metaphysical, partly predictable and partly unpredictable.
The universe is orderly and predictable – that is, nature is not capricious.
Generalisations Generalizations have causal, personal, rational/non-rational, logical/ non-logical dimensions.
Generalizations are relative statements which do not purport to have universal application.
Scientific laws/generalizations are causal, logical, rational, impersonal and universal. Science is culture free.
Scientific generalizations (laws and theories) are declarative statements with universal application.
Language Language is important as a creative force in the workings of both the natural and the unnatural worlds.
Language is not important to the workings of natural world.
Facts Facts are both tested and experiential Knowledge is based on a monistic worldview.
Scientific facts are tested observations.
Knowledge Knowledge is a critical part of culture. Science is based on a dualistic world- view.
Humans Humans are capable of understanding only part of nature.
Humans are capable of understanding nature.
Source: Le Grange, 2007: 587. Adapted from Ogunniyi, 2004: 292-293.
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Within the Actor Oriented Paradigm there is always an alternative view to the structural analysis of development. It castigates the over-reliance on external initiatives which curtails the achievement of sustainable development. In order to understand the social reality within which the people live, development standards must come to grips with the way in which the participants themselves experience social situations. Afrocentric development approaches are based on local realities. They are inclusive of all people and stress that one should live life robustly (Richards, 1980). They are participatory and empowering. In order for development planners to understand the beneficiary communities they enable community people to participate. In this process they either buy-in or reject, implying that they feel empowered to make decisions in the development process.