PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
6.3 ASSUMED CAUSES OF CHRONIC ILLNESSES
For some Shona people, there are various causative explanations for chronic conditions. Participants identified a number of supposed causes of chronic illnesses.
The general feeling of the participants was that sickness was normal from time to time but it becomes an issue when it does not heal over a reasonable period. Within the purview of the Shona people of Chiweshe, for any other cause beyond the biological cause of illness, explanation for the cause of illness is always sought. The same observation was made by earlier scholars (Gelfand, 1962; Gelfand, 1964; Masaka &
Chingombe, 2009; Matolino, 2011). It is worth noting that it was possible for one participant to identify more than one factor that were working together to cause the illness. A number of causes were identified by the participants with chronic illnesses and they are presented below.
171 Table 3: Causes of illness
PARTICIPANT CAUSE OF ILLNESS A Witchcraft, ethnic spirit
B Angry ancestors/ neglecting rituals C Avenging spirit, familiars, witchcraft
D Familiars
E Ancestral call
F Angry ancestors
G Familiars, witchcraft
H Natural – ancestors neglected their role
I Angry ancestors
J Ancestral call
K Familiars
6.3.1 Call by Ancestral Spirits
The Shona people recognise a strong relationship between the living and the living dead. Before the encroachment of foreign religions and to this day in some cases, the deceased members of a family have a significant role in protecting and endangering the lives of the living. The living were/are expected to honour certain requests by their ancestors, failure of which mishaps can confront them. The spirits can also communicate by causing an imbalance like illness in a person‘s life. It was commonly agreed among the interviewees that if a spirit wants to manifest in a person it may cause chronic illness which can only heal after a person responses to the calling. It is generally believed that a sick person would not respond to medication until s/he goes to a n’anga (traditional healer) who will tell her that s/he must welcome the ancestral spirit.
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The process of welcoming the ancestral spirit was said to involve a ceremony where traditional home-made alcohol is brewed and certain libations to the ancestors are done. One chronically ill girl (Participant E) reported that she was into ATR because she was told that she was chosen by ancestral spirits to host a healing spirit, so she had no option but to join ATR. She said:
“Ndine basa rokurapa rakaiswa pandiri, tiri kugadzirira kutambira basa racho. Manje manje hurwere hunenge hwapera…….” (I have a healing assignment put on me. We are preparing to welcome the spirit and very soon, the illness will be gone)
She hoped very much that her illness would disappear in no time as preparations were underway to welcome the healing spirit. On the same note, Participant C said:
“Tinoziva kuti kana mweya uchida kugara pamunhu unogona kukonzeresa chirwere chisingaperi” (We know that if a spirit wants to settle on someone, it may cause a long term illness).
Some participants buttressed the call by ancestral spirits by mentioning diseases such as cancer, epilepsy and mental illness which some traditional medical practitioners could successfully cure, and they assumed that some spirits had a hand in their origin.
Thus, for the participants, illness may be caused by one‘s ancestors seeking attention or some wandering spirits seeking a person to possess. Bosman (n.d) argues that ancestral spirits are believed to cause illness when they want to communicate something to the living. Other scholars, Muchinako et al (2013) corroborate with the study participants by arguing that Shona traditions have it that if the ancestors want a
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person to become a spirit medium, they make the chosen person mentally ill. That person may seek medical treatment but will not recover until they accept to fulfil the ancestors‘ wishes. Ancestors occupy a central role in the lives of most indigenous Africans. Though they have a protective factor, it can be seen from the foregoing that they may cause illness if their concerns are not taken into consideration. In line with the proponents of Afrocentrism, most Africans have been influenced by foreign religions to desert their traditional beliefs hence this assumption by some respondents that neglecting the call by ancestors may cause chronic illnesses. Social workers working with African communities should always seek to understand the role played by religion with special reference to ancestors concerning illnesses. They may have to encourage their clients in ATR to perform some rituals in honour of their ancestors rather than discouraging them. However, this may be a delicate endeavour as ATR is diminishing and social workers may be subscribing to other religions other than ATR. Social workers should be culturally competent and should be sensitive to the religious beliefs of all their clients. Where need arise they should encourage their clients to honour their ancestors as failure to do so is believed to cause illness.
6.3.2 Avenging Spirits
Though not present in other religions, one peculiar belief in Shona traditional religion is the belief in avenging spirits (ngozi). These spirits are believed to cause misfortunes on their targets. Participants C and E indicated that their illnesses were a result of avenging spirits. However Participants, A, J and K denied the involvement of avenging spirits in their illnesses. The belief in ngozi has always been present among the Shona people and is part of the Shona traditional religion. It is therefore critical for social workers to
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recognise such beliefs embedded in Shona traditional religion. There is not one type of ngozi among the Shona people and the level of rage is not the same. Apart from causing illness, the avenging spirit can cause other misfortunes like losing jobs, road accidents, sudden deaths, divorces etc. The belief in ngozi was mentioned in earlier studies (Bosman, n.d; Benyera, 2014, Masaka & Chingombe, 2009; Gelfand, 1962;
Chavunduka, 2001, Chavunduka, 2011). These scholars also found that some members of ATR believe that there should be compensation for the avenging spirit hence the Shona saying ―Mushonga wengozi kuripa‖ which literally means the solution to an avenging spirit in compensation.
6.3.3 Possession of Some Familiars
Possession of familiars is closely related to witchcraft. However, people may possess them so that they may get rich. These familiars may in turn affect the owners, their children or relatives as part of their condition for services they offer to the owner by causing illness. Chavunduka (2001) argues that people may possess these familiars to get rich but in the long run they may haunt other family members by causing illness.
Some of the responses in this regard were:
―Chikwambo chinogona kuda mukadzi, kana muridzi wacho akatadza kuchipa chinokozera matambudziko akasiyana siyana” (A tokolosh may need a wife and if it‘s not given it causes various troubles)- Participant G.
“Mumusha medu tine vanhu vanobata bata saka kurwara kwerudzi urwu hakushamisi” (In our extended family we have people who possess familiars so illness of this nature are not a surprise) – Participant C.
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As seen here participant C attributed her illness to avenging spirits and possession of some familiars by some members of the extended family. Asked to clarify the causes of her illness she indicated that she suspected both. In as much as social workers may have to appreciate the traditional explanations for illness among indigenous African communities, they have to be careful as one illness may have many explanations on the same individual. As in the case with participant, C there is interplay of avenging spirit and familiars owned by a relative. The avenging spirit was thought to open an avenue for enemies to do what they want as they protective factor of ancestors is weakened.
Another participant, D also suspected that her illness was caused by familiars his late father used to possess. She highlighted that upon his father‘s death, nobody could take over the familiars and they were thrown into the river. This, she said has caused indescribable suffering in their family. She mentioned failure to get jobs by her brothers and her two sisters who were into prostitution in the nearby township. All these problems he attributed to the familiars. Social workers working in African communities must therefore be in a position to discuss issues to do with misfortunes attributed to mystical beliefs among their clients. This is despite the fact that such beliefs maybe against those of the social worker. A client maybe hospitalised but believing that his illness is caused by possession of familiars. Culturally competent medical social workers should be in a position to give a client an opportunity to dispose such things.
However in light of the canon of utulivu, social workers should be respectful and try by all means to avoid conflicts among their clients. Witchcraft and possession of familiar accusation may cause disharmony among African communities.
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