RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.7 SAMPLING SIZE
A question that often plagues emerging researchers is how large their sample size should be. According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2011), there is no clear-cut answer to this question. The correct sample size depends on the purpose of the study, the nature of the population under scrutiny, the level of accuracy required, the number of variables included in the study and whether the research is qualitative or quantitative.
In Afrocentric methodologies, the researcher should take care to involve a proportionate sample of African people. This is supported by Pellerin (2012) who posits that an Afrocentric researcher must remain cognisant of the agency of Africana people and must take care to involve a proportionate sample size. In the current study, eleven people with chronic illnesses participated. The information they provided was augmented by eighteen other members of Chiweshe communal lands who participated in focus group discussions and six families of people with chronic illnesses. The sample size was based on the principle of saturation which states that data collection should stop when no knew themes are emerging.
153 5.8 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Tools of measurement used in Afrocentric research must be in harmony with African people‘s existence. According to Pellerin (2012), applicable tools should not threaten, intrude upon or disrupt the agency of people‘s lives. There is no one best technique for gathering data. According to Gray et al (2007:43), choice of data collection technique depends on: the level of social interaction one needs or wish to observe, the type of information one wants to know, the resources available for research and the relative easy access to individuals, groups or communities. A number of instruments were used to gather data from the participants. These include one-on-one interviews, family interviews and focus group discussions.
5.8.1 Interviews
According to Gray (2004), an interview is a conversation between people in which one person assumes the role of a researcher. In other words, an interview is a face-to-face interaction between the researcher and the respondent. Interviews which allow more direct questions are preferable in a case study design. Interviewing is one of the most frequently used techniques of gathering qualitative and descriptive data that are difficult and time-consuming to unearth. One of the most important sources of case study information is interviewing (Yin, 2008). This method was used to gain an in-depth understanding of the subject under review. ―A well conducted interview is a powerful tool for eliciting rich data on people‘s views, attitudes and the meaning that underpin their lives and behaviours‖ (Gray, 2004:213). According to Gray (2004:214), interviews are a favoured approach where: there is need to attain highly personalised data, there are opportunities required for probing and a good return rate is important
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In this study, the interview questions were created by the researcher for the purpose of gathering data from each participant‘s demographic information: experiences around spirituality, religion and illness. Data were collected orally from each participant.
Conversations during interviews did not follow a uniform question and answer pattern.
In order to achieve a reasonable amount of consistency, an interview schedule was used (see Appendix 1 and 1B). In face-to-face interviews, the response rate is usually higher as compared to questionnaires or telephone interviews. They allow for elicitation of more details. According to Gray (2004), face- to-face interviews allow the researcher and the interviewee to create rapport. He further contends that face-to-face interviews help ascertain respondents‘ reasons for doing something or holding a personal view.
The researcher tried to make the conversation as casual as possible. The following disadvantages of interviews have been cited:
danger of bias due to poorly constructed questions.
response bias
inaccuracies due to poor recall
interviewee can give what the interviewer wants to hear.
arranging interviews, travelling and establishing rapport are time consuming.
is generally expensive
According to Gray et al (2007), the presence of an interviewer can improve the quality of responses in that if a subject does not understand a question, the interviewer can clarify its meaning. In cases where responses are not clear, interviewers can also seek clarity.
Intensive interviewing offers an opportunity to probe extensively for sensitive information from potentially evasive individuals. In the in-depth interviews, the researcher takes
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account of each interviewee‘s individuality in deciding what to ask as well as when and how to ask it (Gray et al, 2007).
Recording information usually influence the pace of the interview, the nature of the responses and the quality of the analysis. The researcher recorded the interview proceedings on a tape. Two types of interviews were used to gather data from the respondents. These include one-on-one interviews and family interviews.
5.8.1.1 One-on-one Interviews
One-on-one interviews were used to gather data from the chronically ill people. This method was used to gain an in-depth understanding of the subject under review. The interview questions were created by the researcher for the specific purpose of gathering data on each participant‘s demographic information: experiences around spirituality and religion. Data were collected orally from each participant while the researcher took notes. All the discussions were in Shona which is the local language in Chiweshe area.
Personal interviews are beneficial in that the respondents are motivated to participate.
Interviews ensure a high level participation among the respondents as compared to other methods. Another merit of interviews is that it allows the researcher to modify the line of inquiry and follow up interesting responses.
5.8.1.2 Family interviews
Data were also gathered through family interviews. These are families whose members had a chronic disease. Interview questions were directed to the whole family. This data collection method was used by Wintersteen, Mupedziswa and Wintersteen (1995) who were researching on mental illness in Zimbabwe. Families in all their remarkable
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diversity are the basic foundation of all human cultures. Crises can make families even stronger. The researcher has ensured that each family member is given an opportunity to share his or her ideas. The researcher chose this data collection tool based on the principle of ujamaa which suggest that African people are communal. The understanding was that individual experiences, beliefs and the problems which are caused by the illness are usually shared by the whole family.
The interviews were held at the respondents‘ homestead during their free time. Among the Shona people, just like in many other African communities, the family plays a very important role during a person‘s. It is, therefore, critical to understand the family‘s set or beliefs, cultural expectations and caring practices for people who are chronically ill. In most African cultures, the family is considered as an entity that has existed before one was born and will exist after one has died (Mufamadi, 2009). People with chronic illnesses were excluded from family interviews. As noted by Wintersteen et al (1995), this allows participants to be more comfortable and free to talk when the ill members of the family are not around.
5.8.2 Focus Group Discussions
Data were also solicited from the participants through focus group discussions.
According to Remenyi, Williams, Money and Swartz (2005), focus group is a research approach of collecting evidence from a highly specialised group of individuals. Gilbert (2012) is of the view that a focus group consists of a small group of individuals numbering from six to ten, who meet together to express their views about a particular topic defined by the researcher. In a focus group discussion, a facilitator or moderator leads and guides the discussion between the participants. According to Silverman
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(2011), focus groups allow the researcher to do an in-depth exploration of the participants‘ views and experiences on a specific subject. The evidence collected using a focus group is usually analysed using qualitative techniques. Focus group method has been selected because it is a useful way of obtaining evidence from experts in an intense and concentrated way. Three group discussions were held with the following groups of people:
traditional cultural leaders and the elderly
traditional medical practitioners
Village Health Workers and home-based care workers
In Afrocentric research, the researcher should have some familiarity with the history, language, philosophy and myths of the people under study. In this study, all the discussions were carried out by the researcher and all proceedings throughout data collection were in Shona which is the local language in Chiweshe communal lands. An advantage of focus group interviews is that they allow a variety of views to emerge while group dynamics can often allow a stimulation of new perspectives (Gray, 2004).
Drawbacks of focus groups include sampling bias and expectancy effects. In FDG, participants are usually not representative of any population. Validity of focus group findings is heavily dependent on the authenticity of participants‘ prior experience and their willingness to be frank (Gray et al, 2007). The researcher was the moderator in all the group discussions. Each group consisted of six members. The group size was small enough for all the participants to have opportunities to share their insights, identify themselves as group members, engage in face-to-face interactions, and exchange
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thoughts and feelings among themselves. The group size was also large enough to allow diversity of perceptions (Allen-Meares, 1995; Fieldman, 1995).
During the discussions, the researcher started by welcoming the participants in order to make them feel at ease. He then asked them to introduce themselves. The researcher requested permission to audiotape the proceedings. The focus group participants were encouraged to provide as much information as they could. They were also told that they were free to agree, disagree, question and discuss issues with one another while the researcher ensured that all issues that were raised were addressed.