LIST OF ACRONYMS
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.9 AWARENESS OF MALE OFFENDER ON SEXUAL ASSAULT
Men are overlooked and underestimated as being victims of this sexually aggressive behaviour.
Sexual assault has been recognised as a widespread occurrence in correctional centres (Worley, Worley & Mullings, 2010). Within the correctional setting, the offender’s awareness of sexual assault does depend on a situation where an offender may have experienced or seen sexual acts in the correctional centre. However sexual assault lore and the correctional centre culture itself put them in fear of the prospect of sexual assault (Worley et al., 2010). A study conducted by Struckman-Johnson and Struckman-Johnson (2000) established that a culture of fear about sexual assault was dominant in the male facilities compared to the female facilities. In addition, Damon et al. (1999) also revealed in their study that women have a greater awareness of sexual assault and may sympathise with the victim more readily, because there are more likely to be sexually assaulted than men. Hart (1995:16) contends that “females need and have greater social support at the offender level and as such could have lower awareness of correctional centre sexual assault.”
A study conducted by Fleisher and Krienert (2009) in the U.S found that nearly 80% of men and over 90% of women clearly reported that they were not worried about sexual assault or the threat of sexual assault in their facilities. The study conducted by Fleisher and Krienert (2009) on the culture of correctional centre sexual violence and the study conducted by Hart (1995) on gender differences in social support among offender both share the same knowledge that female offenders are less worried and aware of sexual assault within their facilities.
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Saum, Surratt, Inciardi, and Bennett, (1995) focused their study on Delaware medium security correctional centre on responses of offenders concerning correctional centre sexual experiences and sexual activities that had either been observed, heard about, or experienced by the offenders themselves. The result of this study revealed that out of the 101 male offenders that were interviewed 40% admitted to knowing that sexual assault occurred (Saum et al, 1995).
Offenders understand this phenomenon and are fully aware that male sexual assaulted occurs within correctional facilities.
A study by Worley et al. (2010) in the U.S established that the longer the offender is exposed to the correctional centre life, the higher the awareness of correctional centre sexual assault.
This may be because the longer the offender serves time in the correctional centre, the more he is likely to know and hear about the incidents of male sexual assault and similar inappropriate activities occurring in the correctional centre (Worley et al., 2010). Worley et al. (2010)’s study further revealed that about 65% of the offenders were aware that sexual assault was occurring in the correctional facility. According to Fleisher and Krienert (2006), correctional centre
‘‘stories’’ are enough to increase an offender’s awareness about the dangers of sexual assaults in a correctional centre.
A study conducted by Booyens (2008) on sexual victimisation of male offenders and awaiting- trial detainees in a South African correctional centre found that the majority (84%) of the male research participants confirmed that they have heard of occurrences of sexual assault in the correctional centre. It is clear from the above that sexual assault does occur in correctional centres and that the offenders are aware that it’s happening.
From the above studies, it is evident that offenders are aware of the existence of male sexual assault in the correctional centre. However, it is essential to uncover if correctional officials are aware of male sexual assault in correctional centre. This is further discussed in the following section.
2.9.1 Awareness of correctional officials on male sexual assault in correctional centres In correctional centres problems such as ‘abnormal’ sexual behaviours are ignored by administrators, correctional services officials, and offenders (Javaid, 2014). Officials are the men and women who shape the correctional institutions and are responsible for the enforcement of correctional policies regarding correctional centre sex in their respective institutions (Hensley & Tewksbury, 2005), such officials are able to significantly influence the structure, culture, and activities of their correctional centres (Eigenberg, 2000a). Hensley and Tewksbury
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(2005) further stated that correctional officials must be aware and concerned about the amount of sexual assault that occurs within their institutions so that they may provide appropriate safety and security measures to their offender populations.
Moreover, a study conducted by Javaid (2014) shares the same knowledge with the study conducted by Hensley and Tewksbury (2005) that correctional officials reject the occurrence of male sexual assault in correctional centres, and generally believe that any sexual acts are consensual. Wyatt (2006) explains that the reason for this type of attitude from correctional officials as being that many offenders use coercive, non–violent tactics to sexually assault other offenders. However, Cook (2009) argues that correctional officials may be acting in this manner simply because there may be hesitant to pursue issues of male sexual assault, for the same reasons that they are hesitant to discuss other sensitive issues like staff misconduct and corruption. Also, they may not want to recognise its occurrence in their correctional centres for fear of appearing unable to manage the institution effectively (Dennehy & Natel, 2006; Cook, 2009; Wyatt, 2006; Eigenberg, 2000). However, Gonsalves et al (2012:26) contradict this finding, suggesting that although the actual prevalence is unknown, correctional officials believe it is an infrequent occurrence and that few offenders are at high risk for victimisation Eigenberg (2000b) highlight in her work that officials may be embarrassed and ignore to confront offenders who engage in male sexual assault, simply because they perceive no harm.
The article further asserts that an alarming proportion of correctional officials are against talking to offenders about sexuality and sexual assault in correctional centre (Eigenberg, 2000b). However, this may be caused by the fact that officials may be in lacking of knowledge on male sexual assault or may be uncomfortable talking about the subject because of inadequate training (Eigenberg, 2000b). This indicates that correctional officials require training to be able to recognise the physical, behavioural, and emotional symptoms of sexual assault in a correctional centre. Nevertheless, this requires a better understating of the perceptions and awareness of correctional officials on male sexual assault in correctional centres.
Understanding the awareness and perceptions of correctional officials on male sexual assault in correctional centres is the focus of the current research. Hensley and Tewksbury (2005) carried out a study in which questionnaires were given to correctional officials in the U.S, in order to understand officials’ perceptions on prison sex. Their study found that correctional officials do not believe sexual activity (consensual or coercive and/or assaultive) does occur in their institutions (Hensley & Tewksbury, 2005). It is of importance thatcorrectional officials
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are aware and concerned about the amount of sexual activity occurring in their correctional centres so that they may provide additional safety and security to their offender’s populations, as well as society (Hensley & Tewksbury, 2005).
Eigenberg (2000a) conducted a study on Correctional officers' definitions of rape in male prisons, in order to evaluate the officials’ definitions of rape. Six vignettes were included to determine what type of acts officials viewed as rape. Regarding officials’ definitions of sexual assault, the majority believed that sexual assault occurred if the victim was physically overpowered or threatened with bodily injury, though fewer believed that coercive sexual acts (e.g. sex in exchange for goods or protection) constituted sexual assault (Eigenberg, 2000a).
However, another study by Eigenberg (2000b) also found that officials were unsure when coercion was used to accomplish sexual assault. This study shares the same sentiment with the study conducted by (Rodriguez, 2011), that correctional officials are unable to apply a uniform definition of sexual assault to the incarcerated population whom they monitor, more so they lack a clear understanding what institutes sexual assault. “Without a clear understanding of what constitutes sexual assault, it is impossible to expect correctional officials to provide safety and security for confined offenders who are at an increased risk of victimisation due to the secured environment” (Rodriguez, 2011:36). Therefore, this study was conducted based on the above information, to unearth if correctional officials in South Africa understood what constitutes male sexual assault.
In addition, Gonsalves et al. (2012) conducted a study on staff perceptions of risk for prison rape perpetration and victimisation and it was found that correctional officials mentioned that within the male facilities “male sex drives, forced abstinence, interpersonal conflicts, the exploitative nature of inmate culture and the pursuit of power over weaker offenders contributed to rates of sexual assault” (Gonsalves et al., 2012:254). In addition, Gonsalves et al. (2012) study established that correctional officials rated females (87.9%) as being at low risk for perpetrating sexual assault, 11% as medium and 1% as high risk of committing sexual assault. On the other hand, males were rated 93.8 % as low risk , 5.9 % as medium and 3% as high risk for perpetration of sexual assault toward other males (Gonsalves et al., 2012).
Gonsalves et al (2012) study is like the current study. However, a study of this nature has not been conducted in South Africa more so in Westville Correctional Centre. Moster and Jeglic (2009) conducted a study on correctional centre officials’ attitudes toward correctional centre sexual assault, officials were asked about the number of sexual assaults that have occurred within the past year that they knew about. “The study ascertained that 51.8% of the officials
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reported zero awareness of assaults; 23.2% reported knowing of 1 assault and 25.0% knew of 2 or more assaults” (Moster & Jeglic, 2009: 72).
According to Shayi (2008) who conducted a study on sexual practices in South African correctional centres, male sexual assault is known to be a problem for both offenders and officials. If male sexual assault in correctional centres also impact the correctional services officials, it is therefore vital to also understand their perceptions. Offenders from Pollsmoor correctional centre who were interviewed by Shayi (2008) stated that up to nine to twelve perpetrators could be involved in a gang sexual assault. Moreover, interviewed officials confirmed to be aware of the occurrences of sexual assault that takes place in this correctional centre, in addition correctional officials handle an average of three to four cases of sexual assault per week (Shayi, 2008). Another study conducted by Ghanotakis et al (2007) on Stop prison rape in South Africa found that correctional officials were aware that a male offender can get sexually assaulted upon entering the correctional system, as one who was interviewed mentioned that offenders kept in court cells are expected to go to court the next morning and during that sleepover “things” happen (Ghanotakis et al., 2007). Therefore, an offender arrives in the court as a perpetrator of crime but also a victim of male sexual assault in a correctional centre (Ghanotakis et al., 2007). Correctional officials are aware of the incidents of male sexual assault in their correctional centres, thus this study seeks to explore the awareness and perceptions of officials towards male sexual assault.
The following discussion dwells on the perspective of the general community on male sexual.
Correctional officials are members of the community; it is therefore important to understand if they hold the same perceptions as the society on male sexual assault.