LIST OF ACRONYMS
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.3 OPPORTUNITY MODEL
62 Figure 3.2: Examples of a capable guardian
It is also possible for a guardian to be present, but ineffective. For example, a CCTV camera is not a capable guardian if it is set up incorrectly or in the wrong place or is not monitored (Hunter & Dantzker, 2002). The Westville CCTV’s in cells may be ineffective to deter the occurrence of male sexual assault, as the offenders may cover/block them.
According to Booyens (2008), when there is poor supervision in a correctional facility, male sexual assault is likely to occur. Booyens (2008) further assert that sexual assault occurs when point men keep guard to warn the perpetrator if a correctional official is approaching the scene, thus highlighting that male sexual assault occurs in the absence of correctional officials.
Correctional officials are the main guardians of the correctional centre, but because of issues such as overcrowding, these officials are unable to effectively monitor cells visually.
Consequently, resulting in male sexual assault of offenders.
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offences (Peacock, 2013). These five features play a significant role in the understanding of the opportunity model. However, according to Booyens (2008) not all these elements can be applied to sexual assault within a correctional centre setting. However, some elements are of value to this study. The opportunity model was employed in this study to better explain why and how some male offenders become victims of sexual assault at Westville Correctional Centre.
3.3.1 Exposure
Exposure refers to physical visibility and accessibility of victims and objects at a certain time and place (Peacock, 2013). The potential victim must come into a direct contact with the perpetrator, the more this contact occurs the higher the opportunity for victimisation (Peacock, 2013). Fattah (2000:65) asserts that “exposure to potential offenders and high-risk situations and environments might increase the risk of personal victimisation.”
Correctional centres are known to be harsh inhuman environments with enforced sexual intercourse. Therefore, being a male offender often results in an increased exposure to the risk of male sexual assault. Due to the nature of the confined environment of the South African correctional centres, for example, Westville, it is usual that the offender’s movement is limited within the confines of the centre and are usually exposed to each other or to motivated/potential offenders. Potential victims of male sexual assault are physically visible and are in great exposure to the motivated offenders due to overcrowding in correctional settings such as Westville. In support of this, Booyens (2008) states that male offenders share cells and showers or be in direct contact with others during mealtimes. The more potential victims are exposed to motivated offenders, the greater is the probability of them being sexually assaulted. Potential victims of male sexual assault are sexually assaulted within the prisons, therefore highlighting that victims are easily accessible.
3.3.2 Proximity
According to the opportunity model, proximity refers to “the physical distance between areas where the potential target of crime is situated and areas where a large population of the potential offender may be found” (Peacock, 2013: 21; Booyens, 2008). This model assumes that the closer the residential area of the potential victim to that of the motivated offender, the higher the risk of victimisation (Peacock, 2013).
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At Westville Correctional Centre, offenders reside in relatively small units i.e. cells, placing them in close physical proximity to one another. These cells contain 50 or more people who spend close to 18 hours each day near each other (Goyer & Gow, 2001). As a result, potential victims and offenders may be or are in proximity with each other. As a result of overcrowding sometimes there are more offenders in a cell than there are beds (Goyer & Gow, 2001). With beds next to each other and overcrowding in cells there is no significant physical distance between the potential victims and motivated offenders because they all share the same space and possibly the same bed. Consequently, increasing the male offenders’ risk of becoming victims of male sexual assault.
In 2006 the Minister of Correctional Services, Ngconde Balfour, announced that privacy was going to be taken away from offenders in their cells, as a result of the things that were going on in the cells i.e. sexual assault (Booyens, 2008). This highlights that a correctional cell is one place that offenders are in proximity with each other, thus increasing their risk of being exposed or falling victims of sexual assault.
3.3.3 Guardianship
Guardianship refers to people (i.e. Correctional officers) or objects (alarms, close-circuit television [CCTV] and locks) that prevent crime by their presence or through direct or indirect action (Peacock, 2013:95). According to this model, perpetrators prefer targets that are less guarded to those that are guarded (Peacock, 2013). Thus, an increase in guardianship can thus lower the chances of a criminal victimisation from occurring (Peacock, 2013). The explanation of elements of the model is like the elements of the routine activity with lack of guardianship.
In correctional centres, there is minimal guardianship of offenders or else this offence would not occur. It can be argued that male offenders in general lack the capable guardianship and they are thus exposed to both potential and motivated offenders. Male offenders as perpetrators rely on correctional officials as guardians to protect them from this type of crime.
Unfortunately, it has been proved from various studies that some correctional officials are also involved in the victimisation of male offenders (Booyens, 2008; Struckman-Johnson &
Struckman-Johnson, 2006; Eigenberg, 1989:30; Eigenberg, 2000b; Cook & Lane , 2016). In support of this, Booyens (2008:39) alluded that “correctional officials tend to tolerate and turn a blind eye towards sexual behaviour between men since it contributes towards a non-violent and riot-free correctional centre”.
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As mentioned above in Section 3.3.3 guardians refer to the correctional officials or CCTV cameras in cells who are supposed to protect offenders. In correctional centres there is usually a shortage of staff and poor supervision of offenders especially at night, which is when offences such as sexual assault are likely to take place. This therefore, increases the risk of male offenders to be sexually assaulted. Absence or lack of supervision of correctional officials at Westville Correctional Centre may result in sexual assault of offenders. However, this type of crime may also occur in the presence of correctional officials who are supposed to prevent this type of crime from happening. The absence of correctional official as capable guardians is a major feature in the occurrence male sexual assault in correctional centres.
3.3.4 Target attractiveness
This element refers to two components, namely; the desirability of individuals or property as targets for potential offenders and ability or inability of the person to offer resistance (Peacock, 2013). Thus, the greater the attractiveness of the target, the greater the risk of criminal victimisation (Peacock, 2013; Davis & Syman, 2005). The application of this element to this study is like the application of the suitable target under the routine activity mentioned above.
Certain characteristics place offenders at greater risk of sexual assault in correctional facilities.
Male offenders who are less masculine in appearance, young, physically weak and new in correctional centres are prone to be victims of this sexual offence as indicated in (paragraph- of chapter two of this research study). The above-mentioned characteristics are what attract the motivated offender to the potential victim.
3.3.5 Properties of specific offences
This refers to the degree to which the properties of the offence constrain instrumental actions of the potential offender (Peacock, 2013:21; Davis & Syman, 2005). Therefore, the more difficult it is for the offender to commit a crime the less likely it is for the crime to occur (Booyens, 2008).
There is a high level of male sexual assault against male offenders. It is not difficult for people to victimise other male offenders; hence, this type of victimisation is at a disturbing rate. In support of the above statement, a study conducted by Booyens (2008) found that participants found it easy to commit a sexual offence as witnesses and victims are not likely to report the incidence and correctional officials are usually absent, especially at night.
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The researcher agrees with the above application of the theory by Booyens (2008), male offenders find no difficulty in committing this sexual offence against other males. Due to poor supervision, overcrowding and underreporting of incidents of sexual assault.