URBAN FORM
2.3.1. BACKGROUND
Page | 32 2.3. EBENEZER HOWARD’S GARDEN CITY
In 1898 Ebenezer Howard, a stenographer and shorthand writer, published a book called To-Morrow:
A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. This book introduced Howard’s concept of The Garden City and social and political reform to the world. His theories are among the most influential in the history or modern town planning (Ward, 1992: 2; 28).
Page | 33 2.3.2.1. The Town Magnet
Howard said that the town is the symbol of society (Howard, 1966:
48). He portrayed it as an overcrowded, polluted place which is full of economic, social and amusement opportunities. Although earnings are higher in the town, rents and prices of goods are also much higher than in the country. He also said that there is a large proportion of the population which is unemployed and that even though the streets are lit with electrical lighting, environmental conditions are foggy and water and sanitary services are very poor, sometimes non-existent.
He said, too, that both the distance to work and working hours in the town are excessive (Howard, 1966: 47).
Howard said that the town is the place of mutual help between humans. It is the place of science, art, culture and religion (Howard, 1966: 48). He argues, however, that the negatives of living in the town outweigh its positives (Howard, 1966: 47).
2.3.2.2. The Country Magnet
Howard said that the country is the “source of all beauty and wealth”
(Howard, 1966: 47), although it is very dull due to a lack of society and money. The country possesses clean air, rolling hills and wonderful views, but even though rents are low, it is due to the lack of money or interest. The industry which dominates the country is agriculture, which takes advantage of the rainfall, but there is no means of storing water for times of drought. Parts of the country are almost devoid of people
Howard said that the country is “the symbol of God’s love and care for man.” It is the source of health and wealth, but due to the
“unnatural separation” of man from the country, there is so much for man to learn from nature (Howard, 1966: 48).
Howard therefore proposes the Town and Country should become one, whereby the best qualities of each be joined in harmony.
2.3.2.3. The Town-Country Magnet
Howard proposed that the town-country marriage would – according to his theory – lead to social opportunities which are similar to those
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Figure 22: Ebenezer Howard’s diagram of a group of satellite Garden Cities. Notice the central town has a larger population than the outer ones. (Ward, 1992: 4)
found in the town whilst accommodating nature throughout the development. He said that higher wages would be coupled with lower rents and rates, and that there would be employment opportunities for all. He also said that capital would be attracted and would create wealth and that sanitary conditions would be remarkable. He said too that everyone would have a beautiful home, gardens would be seen from everywhere and that freedom would be widened to make for happy residents (Howard, 1966: 49).
Howard’s proposal takes the social advantages of the town and places them in a location in the country.
2.3.3. THE GARDEN CITY CONCEPT Ebenezer Howard’s
ideas for the Garden City were not new – they were adopted from three sources – but it was the combination of the three ideas which gave the Garden City concept its substance.
In his writing, Howard fully acknowledged sources of his ideas in industrial and
population migration, land reform and model communities (Ward, 1992: 2).
The fundamental idea
behind Howard’s vision is “the movement from a high-cost, unstable big-city economy to a low-cost, stable decentralised economy concentrated in self-contained communities” (Ward, 1992: 148).
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Figure 23: A more detailed plan of the conceptual layout of the Garden City. Notice Howard placed industry/employment zones on the outskirts of the settlement. This would give preference to the
residential zones within,but also maximise the amount of employment opportunities in each ward due to the large circumference of the circular form of the town (Ward, 1992: 5).
Garden cities were intended to be small, well planned towns where each would be surrounded by 5 000 acres of rural land and interconnected by a rapid transit system of electric railways. The actual town would occupy 1 000 acres and would house a population of up to 32 000. Although this population is small, each garden city would be economically and socially balanced whereby all income groups would be accommodated and all levels of
employment would be available (Ward, 1992: 29-30).
In terms of regional planning, Howard envisaged regional systems of garden cities whereby the smaller cities with populations of 32 000 would surround a single larger city of 58 000 people.
Green belts around each city would keep them separate and each would have its own identity. “These polycentric ‘social cities’ indeed anticipate the modern concept of a multi-centred city region divided by green belts and served by integrated traffic systems” (Ward, 1992: 30).
Howard’s physical plans of Garden City show it in a circular formation with a
clear zoning system within it. Public buildings and service activities are located at the centre of the circle which is surrounded by a belt of residential development.
Encircling this are the railway and factories. Public parks and gardens, and tree-lined avenues are important features of the garden city concept. Six large boulevards radiate from the centre of the city outwards. These boulevards divide the city into six equal neighbourhoods which are self-sufficient. The rural land surrounding the city is
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Figure 24: Propaganda for an experimental Garden City in 1920. It clearly shows that Howard’s garden city idea was a reaction to the era of coal, steam and the railway (Ward, 1992: 147).
used for agriculture, forestry, recreation and institutions such as hospitals (Ward, 1992: 30).
Howard’s drawings were very diagrammatical, which allowed real-life developments to take on their own form to suit sites and developer preferences. Howard intended this to occur, along with free will on the style of buildings built in the cities. He did however stress that all sanitary arrangements would be strictly enforced, and that all sewerage and refuse be utilised on the agricultural areas surrounding the city (Ward, 1992: 30).
Howard also stressed that the land on which the city sat must belong to the community. The reason for this was that it would ensure the social control of the physical planning of the garden city, and that all increases in land value brought about by development would be put to public use (Ward, 1992: 30).
Howard believed that quality of housing, work and leisure conditions would be greatly improved in garden cities. He intended a city of freedom, whereby only land uses would be controlled. It would be a place where both rural and town life would be enriched: the attractions of the countryside would be available to the city’s residents whereas the economic advantages of the city would be easily available to rural residents (Ward, 1992: 31).
The Garden City, in essence, is controlled decentralisation of the older, more congested city. It was Howard’s intention to undermine the old city by the creation of “satellite” garden cities located outside of the old city (Ward, 1992: 10). These satellite towns were intended to attract rural-to-urban migrants before they reached the big city, and to attract big city residents who wanted a better way of life away from the congestion, pollution and failing sanitary and sewage systems.
Page | 37 2.3.4. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE GARDEN CITY CONCEPT
Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City concept was never fully implemented, but it did make waves around the world. It influenced planners and reformers in many countries around the world, even though they implemented the concept partially. Peter Hall labelled Howard as “the most important figure in the international history of town planning” (Ward, 1992: 24). Hybrids of the garden city concept can be found in many cities around the world.