URBAN FORM
2.2.3. MOVEMENT SYSTEMS AND PERCEPTION OF SPACE
Page | 28 Mumford draws a comparison between train and private vehicle traffic
crossing London Bridge. He says that the railroad could carry 50 000 people across the bridge in one hour, whereas the best freeways can allow 4 000 to 6 000 cars to pass a single point per hour. Freeways take up a much larger space than a railway does, but cannot compete with the rate at which the railway can carry passengers (Mumford, 1964: 186).
Mumford draws another comparison, this time between pedestrians and cars.
He says that moving 100 000 pedestrians could be moved from point A to point B in half an hour, but it is unknown how long it would take to move the same number of people travelling in cars between the same points (Mumford, 1964: 186).
It is clear from these comparisons how the issue of congestion in city centres arises.
Page | 29 movement occurs” (Bacon, 1980: 34). From this Bacon derives that the concept of a movement system is a dominant organising force in city and architectural design. It is the design of structures along these movement systems which create continuous experiences for the user.
2.2.3.1.3. Simultaneous Continuities
Bacon says that we must see the continuity of space experiences “in terms of a series of movement systems based on different rates of speed and different modes of movement, each of these interrelated with the others and each contributing its part to the total living experience in the city” (Bacon, 1980: 34).
2.2.3.1. 4. Simultaneous Movement Systems and City Design
The strength of the plan of a city lies in the ability to influence growth, not in authority. As movement systems of a city are used over time, they establish themselves deeply in the psychology of the community (Bacon, 1980: 35).
Bacon suggests that introducing a movement system to a city should be in an organic manner, and should be allowed to grow over time because the pattern of growth is ever changing. Movement systems must relate to natural and man-made topography. They have the ability to emphasise elements which are important to the community (Bacon, 1980: 35).
Movement systems must also relate to the tempo of the type of movement system one is designing for. For example a freeway needs long, free flowing forms to take account of fast moving traffic, whilst pedestrians need interest, variety and impressions of rapid change (Bacon, 1980: 35). To create these impressions one can use focal points, landmarks and regularly changing building facades.
The concept of movement systems provides a basic design structure for the designer to build his work from. It is essential that continuity at the city scale is kept in mind when designing.
“A clearly expressed movement system is a powerful influence.” It becomes a political force in that it can show communities that city
Page | 30 rebuilding and restructuring is occurring with the ruling
government’s ideals in mind (Bacon, 1980: 36).
2.2.3.2. Perception of Space
The ways in which people perceive space forms the basis of the mindset with which city dwellers will ultimately view their city, as well as the different parts within their city. Edmund Bacon illustrates the following four perceptions people can gather about a space or city.
2.2.3.2.1. Inward Looking
This is when buildings or urban areas focus their attention inward into themselves in order to preserve the perfectness which exists within their boundaries but which they believe does not exist outside of their boundaries. These structures exclude those who are left on the outside of these boundaries and create a hostile environment for both parties.
2.2.3.2.2. Outreach
These plans involve entire cities. Thrusts and counterthrusts of movement systems are extended over vast distances but always reach out and terminate at definite objects such as a gateway, church or square. These can be used to tie a city together.
2.2.3.2.3. Outgoing
This type of city plan creates movement system thrusts similar to the Outreach type, but they do not have any definite termination point.
They “penetrated the boundaries of the inner space, that extended outward indefinitely, over the horizon and seemingly to infinity.”
This plan is intended to “establish the idea of a design structure capable of indefinite extension over time” (Bacon, 1980: 45).
2.2.3.2.4. Involvement
This type of plan is a combination of the Outreach and Outgoing types. It involves the outward thrust of movement systems from a source, but also the inward thrust from other sources. This sets up relationships between different parts of a city.
Figure 17: Inward looking design.
(Bacon, 1980: 44)
Figure 18: Outreach planning.
(Bacon, 1980: 44)
Figure 19: Outgoing planning.
(Bacon, 1980: 44)
Figure 20: Involvement planning.
(Bacon, 1980: 44)
Page | 31 2.2.4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this section, Kevin Lynch’s theories of city elements and form have been
discussed. Elements include paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. These help define a city’s character, as well as different areas within cities. They are useful when one is designing a new urban node, or even upgrading parts of cities. They can also be used as a means to analyse an urban area.
The city forms which have been discussed in this section include the linear form, the linkage system, the radial system and the grid system. These are also useful as a means of analysing cities in that each form speaks of differing sets of variables which occurred at the planning phase. For example the radial system came about by the invention of the commuter railway and the streetcar, which will be discussed in the next section. These forms also speak of the sets of principles upon which cities were designed. For example, the grid system is rational and efficient, whilst the linkage system is about maintaining the characters of the individual centres whilst being connected in order to trade with each other.
Edmund Bacon’s theories of simultaneous movement systems and perception of space were discussed. Movement systems involve the continuity of experiences throughout the city by city dwellers. The movement system provides a starting point from which the city designer may begin designing. There are different scales of movement systems which need to be designed accordingly. Perception of space is important to understand in order to design the most appropriate city for the public for whom the designer is designing.
This brings the discussion to the next section, which will discuss the topic of Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City concept which involves the controlled
decentralisation of the ‘old’ cities in order to improve the quality of life in these old cities, but also the countryside and in the new towns.
Page | 32 2.3. EBENEZER HOWARD’S GARDEN CITY
In 1898 Ebenezer Howard, a stenographer and shorthand writer, published a book called To-Morrow:
A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. This book introduced Howard’s concept of The Garden City and social and political reform to the world. His theories are among the most influential in the history or modern town planning (Ward, 1992: 2; 28).