2.2. Overview of Related Theoretical Models
2.2.1 The Big 6 Information Skills Model (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1988)
The Big 6 model was conceptualized by Michael B. Eisenberg and Robert E. Berkowitz in 1988, as a process model for information problem-solving (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2009) applicable to different situations (Eisenberg, 2005a; Story-Huffman, 2006; Wolf, 2003) and not necessarily to school settings. Information problem-solving is a concept that combines the skills needed to access and use information to solve an information problem (American Association of School Librarians, 1998; Eisenberg and Berkowitz, 1990). Wopereis, Brand- Gruwel and Vermetten (2008), building on the Big 6 model, developed an information
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problem-solving model in which they observed that solving information problems is a complex cognitive skill.
The Big 6 model consists of six separate steps that help students focus their research, solve problems and make decisions (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1990). These steps include task definition, information seeking strategies, location and access, use of information, synthesis and evaluation (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1996:24-25). Through the six steps, this model seeks to develop skills and abilities in students that enhance effective information problem-solving by way of creating a mental picture that helps a beginner construct a method to meet the information task at hand. The model helps students visualize the series of tasks that at first are not understood or seemingly unconnected to enable them to accomplish what would otherwise seem insurmountable. The six steps are presented in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Big 6 Model(Source: Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1988)
The first step in the Big 6 model is task definition, which seeks to define the information problem and identifies the information needed in order to complete a given task. The task definition stage includes helping the students to understand the nature or type of assignment given; narrowing the scope to determine exactly what is required, what a successful end result will look like and the type and amount of information that will be needed. Eisenberg (2005a) observes that a clear task definition is realized through direct instruction with practical quizzes
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that give the students enough practice in understanding any information problem. Jansen (2005a:34) found good task definition a multi-step process that is key to a successful information search.
In the information seeking strategies stage, the model seeks to enable students to determine the range of possible sources and evaluate the different possible sources to determine priorities.
Eisenberg (2005b:34) refers to it as a ‘mind expanding stage’ of the information problem- solving process. This stage encourages creative thinking that goes beyond the immediate topic.
It involves not only selecting the best possible sources of information to complete a given task, but also reasons why the selected sources are considered best. Brainstorming enhances an understanding of the range of possible information sources and may include generating a list of all potential sources of information, in all formats, with regard to an information problem or recognizing the various technology sources available. Evaluation at this stage involves choosing the best possible information source for a particular information problem from the range of sources selected under brainstorming. Choosing the best possible sources of information ensures that reliable and accurate information is selected to meet the task defined in stage one.
The third step involves locating and accessing the information resources. This stage includes ways of getting to the selected sources and using the information in each source efficiently and effectively. Finding where sources of information are located is as important as finding the information in the sources. At this stage, students are taught how to use indexes, both print and digital, online catalog and Web searches (Jansen, 2005b:29-30; Darrow, 2005a:28). The process involves generating keywords and related words from their questions, including other words that might be useful for their search, but not in their initial questions. Skimming and scanning are important skills that are learnt at this stage for efficient access to information within sources. The student must be finally able to save or print searches and documents found, or physically locate and check out needed print or electronic sources from the library or information centre.
The fourth stage moves from selecting and accessing sources to using information in the sources. Students critically analyse information in each source and determine what is relevant
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to the problem at hand and how to extract it. A clear understanding and grasp of the task, including the research questions, is critical at this stage. Students at this level must engage the sources of information by reading, or careful listening, viewing or touching the information in the source. Students require note-taking skills to record the relevant information gathered efficiently (Eisenberg, 2005b:30). According to Jansen (2003; 2005c:31), note-taking consists of three steps: identification of keywords and related words in the searchable questions, skimming and scanning and extracting needed information. These three steps are not mutually exclusive and take place concurrently. Identification of key words and synonyms involves reading though the document and highlighting words that explain what the topic is about. It could include use of a thesaurus to find synonyms. Skimming and scanning involves going through the document several times to have the general idea it conveys, while extracting involves use of note-taking cards or computer software to record single ideas from identified key words during skimming and scanning. Use of computers to extract information from electronic sources has made the process easier and more efficient, although the quality of the notes taken depends greatly on the individual student. Computer software includes word processors like MS Word and presentation software like PowerPoint. Full citations for the sources extracted are carefully recorded at this step.
Synthesis is the fifth stage in the Big 6 information problem-solving process. Despite being the end result or outcome of the process, this stage does not always involve a report, paper or project, but depends on the original task or problem-solving situation (Darrow, 2005b;
Eisenberg, 2005d). Individual synthesis includes reports, term papers, personal decisions and communicating in person, while the societal level includes the mass media and the internet. In the Big 6 model, synthesis consists of two aspects: organizing information and presenting information. According to Wurman (1989), information can be organized in five ways:
alphabetically, by categories, as a continuum, by location and by time. Software exists that assists with the presentation of information, including word processors, desktop publishers, electronic spreadsheets, databases and presentation software. Jensen (2005d:27) noted that the process of organization and presentation of information results in transferable high-level thinking skills developed in students. The skills include writing, technology, presentation, production and performance. Information must be organized and presented, bearing in mind the issues outlined in the first stage, namely task definition.
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The sixth and final stage in the Big 6 model is evaluation. According to Eisenberg (2005d:22- 23), the Big 6 approach perceives information problem-solving as not being a linear process.
Students often move from one step to another while working on an assignment. Evaluation can be either at the end of the assignment (summative evaluation) or during the process of problem- solving (formative evaluation). It can also include judging the effectiveness of the product in meeting the goal of the process and the efficiency of the process in terms of how well it flowed.
In efficiency the students are able to identify their strengths and weaknesses at any given step, leading to confidence and pride as they perceive being in control of the process (Jansen, 2005e:24).
The University of Denver, The Kentucky virtual library and the University of Washington are among institutions of higher learning that have applied the Big 6 model as a basis for information literacy tutorials in their institutions. The Big 6 model is used in curricula across disciplines to instil problem-solving and knowledge-learning skills, thereby developing information literacy competencies among the students. According to Eisenberg (2013), this model has proved to be successful in educational institutions worldwide. Moreover, King’ori et al. (2012) found the Big 6 model as offering essential life skills that are applicable and transferable to many disciplines and at various levels, including undergraduate students, despite the fact that it was originally designed for elementary school students. However, the Big 6 was not adopted as the underpinning model for this study because of its focus on problem-solving aspects of information use.