2.2. Overview of Related Theoretical Models
2.2.3 Information Seeking Process Model (Kuhlthau, 1985)
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address the original problem or issue and may create a basis for new knowledge. In this Pillar the information gathered is effectively communicated verbally or in writing.
The Welsh Information Literacy Project (2011) adopted the Seven Pillars in developing their IL framework, where IL learning objectives at each educational level were easily aligned with the attributes of the SCONUL framework because of its sequential continuum. A study into the use of the seven pillars model by SCONUL institutions carried out in 2008-2009 found over 77%
of those sampled used the Seven Pillars model for a variety of purposes and in different contexts (Gallacher, 2009:5). The basis for IL programme design was the leading use of the SCONUL model, followed by the model’s use in strategy or policy documents. Other uses and contexts included providing the basis for library IL frameworks, evaluating learning outcomes and providing framework for online IL modules.
McKinney, Jones and Turkington (2011) applied the seven pillars model in their discussion of the findings in their study of information literacy competence through inquiry with first-year psychology students at the University of Sheffield. The seven pillars were used as lenses that enabled evaluation of the students’ IL level of competence, where the study established that students preferred Google Scholar over Web of Knowledge as their preferred source of information.
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students behaved the way they did while looking for information. Central to the ISP model is the notion that uncertainty, both affective and cognitive, increases and decreases in the process of information-seeking. Kuhlthau’s (1991; 1999) empirical studies show that ISP occurs in six stages, outlined below:
1. Taskinitiation - stage where a person realizes that they lack information that is needed to complete an information task or solve a problem. Uncertainty starts at this stage until a topic is selected.
2. Selection - stage where a general topic or problem is identified, making the uncertainty at the initiation stage change to optimism. It leads to wanting to begin searching for the information needed.
3. Exploration – the stage that involves gathering information that is not consistent or compatible, leading to a state of confusion, uncertainty and doubt. This stage investigates the information with the aim of finding focus.
4. Formulation- the stage where a clear perspective is formed, reducing uncertainty and increasing confidence. Here the focus is formulated from the information found.
5. Collection – this stage involves gathering critical information that relates to the problem, creating more interest in the process. The information being gathered at this stage defines and supports the previously identified focus. The researcher is encouraged to be part of the search for the solution to the problem.
6. Presentation - stage when the search is complete and the information found brings a new understanding and the seeker is able to explain the new understanding to others. It involves applying the learnt perception.
The six stages move an information seeker from the initial state of recognizing the information need, to meeting the need. In the first two steps, Kuhlthau (1988; 1991; 1993) sees the information-seeker brainstorming, using the reference collection in the library and discussing the information task with peers and teachers. The selection of the topic in step two brings relief that finally there is a general understanding of the topic and this diminishes anxiety levels. In stage three and four the information seekers move through a period of uncertainty and confusion, as they struggle to grasp the exact information needed. Activities at these stages
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include identifying the likely sources of information, leading to feelings of optimism when they finally settle on a particular source or sources.
Identifying the sources gives the information-seekers a feeling of confidence to complete the task at hand. In stages five and six, the information seekers’ confidence increases, as well as their interest in the topic leading to further searches and gathering of relevant information to meet the task. This may involve reconstructing the topic based on the information being gathered, since there is a clear sense of the particular information needed. These stages involve detailed note-taking, with bibliographic references being recorded. As the search seems not to produce new information, the search process comes to a conclusion and the information seekers move to present the result that meets the information need. Kuhlthau further identified likely thoughts, feelings and actions that may accompany each task at the various stages. This movement is facilitated by the complex choices that are made in the three main realms of activity: cognitive, affective and physical (Kuhlthau, 1991:362), as depicted in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Six Stages of Information Seeking Process (ISP) (Source: Kuhlthau, Heinstrom &
Todd, 2008)
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In the several empirical studies following the publication of the model, Kuhlthau (1991; 1993;
1997; 2001; 2008) found that as information-seeking tasks became more complex so was the increase in the feelings of uncertainty, leading to confusion and apprehension. This, however, diminished as students’ thoughts became more focused, resulting in more confidence and sense of direction in later stages. The information-seekers become more competent at developing more specific searches and more critical at the information found, because they are more informed on the topic or problem at hand.
Although Kuhlthau initially developed the ISP model by interviewing high school seniors as they completed term papers, the ISP model has greatly contributed to the understanding of factors affecting the information-seeking process and has formed the basis of several studies on information-seeking behaviour (Bryon & Young, 2000; Kuhlthau, 2001; Kracker, 2002, Kracker & Wang, 2002; Shannon, 2002; Hyldegard, 2006 and Kuhlthau, 1999; 2008). As a conceptual framework in LIS studies, the ISP model is a result of more than two decades of testing and empirical research. For example, in a study of the applicability of the ISP model in a virtual learning environment, Bryon and Young (2000) found students given an information- seeking task exhibited the stages outlined in the model which supports the study of Kuhlthau, Heinstrom and Todd (2008), that found the ISP model a useful explanation of information- seeking behaviour in the midst of many changes in the information environment. This confirms the independence of the model from the physical library and classroom environment that it was originally developed in.
According to Kuhlthau, Heinstrom and Todd (2008), the model goes beyond being a valuable theoretical framework for examining information behaviour only, to serving as an important tool for intervention in different information-seeking contexts. Kuhlthau’s studies have been embraced outside the learning environments, to include workplace and other public contexts (Kuhlthau, 1997, 1999, 2001).The information-seeking and use attributes of Kuhlthau’s model complemented the main model for this study.
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2.2.4 Focus, Links, Input and Payoff–Intelligent Thinking (FLIP IT) Model (Yucht, 1999)