I No Risk
2.8.4 Biological factors
Biological factors such as rodents, insects, and mould can be added to the list that contribute to environmental problems. The problems stem from the fact that archival documents are made of organic materials. According to Wood Lee (1988) organic materials are susceptible to biological attacks. Biological fuctors have played a great role in the deterioration of records and archives in Africa Gibbs (1985:152) once observed:
... the battle to prove that Africa has a history has been won, but the war to discover and write up that history has been lost. The archives in which transcripts of oral history, files, documents, tapes, photographs and films are being stored are, by no stretch of imagination, time and germproof Paper on which history is written and from which history is rewritten is self-destructive. Paper's decay is assisted by insects which have in many archives transformed documents into doilies.
More specifically, insect infestations were reported to be causing havoc in Botswana (Kufa 1997:159). Insects have not spared the historical manuscripts of the sixteenth century in Timbuktu (Mali) (Dominy 2003:5). In fact, a Timbuktu Manuscripts Project to restore the damaged manuscripts was launched on May 25, 2003 by President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa and President Alpha Konare of Mali as part of the celebrations of the 40th anniversary of the Organisation of African Unity in Johannesburg (Dominy 2003 :5). The Project will improve the storage conditions in which the manuscripts are kept as well as help the Malians to conserve the manuscripts.
The most common insects that attack records and archives are: silverfish, beetle, cockroach, psocids or booklice, moths and termites (Brandt 1995 :55). Mice and rats are the most common rodents, while penicilliums and aspergillus are the most common species of moulds that are inimical to documentary materials. These biological factors are discussed in the following sections.
2.8.4.1 Silverfish
The term silverfish is used for the Thysanura and for any of the species within the order. There are many species of Thysanura. Some of them are the firebrat (Thermobia domestiea), the silverfish (Lepisma saeehrina L), the four-lined silverfish (Cteno/episma quadriseriata) and
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the gray silverfish or giant silverfish (c. longicaudata) (National Park 1980). What they have in common is the distinct carrot shaped body, short legs, long slender antennae and three tail- like appendages (anal cerci) at the end of the body. They are also wingless with scale-covered bodies, which are about half an inch long.
Silverfish is found indoors in warm, humid areas such as basements. Silverfish thrive best at a temperature of between 22°C and 27°C and at a relative humidity of 75% to 97% (parker 1988). If we were to go by the temperature ranges in some selected towns in South Africa at Table Three in Chapter Three it is evident that most collections are susceptible to silverfish invasions.
Feeding habits of silverfish species are very similar (National Park 1980). Once a source of food is located, silverfish remains in the vicinity. Silverfish feeds on human foods, especially those containing starch or flour, as well as on paper, especially glaze-coated paper. They eat sizing on paper, as well as glue and paste. They may feed on wallpaper or the paste behind it, causing the wallpaper to become detached from the wall.
Detecting damage caused by silverfish is the best way of monitoring its presence. The sizing of paper will be removed in irregular fashion, and the edges of paper will appear notched. In cases of high populations irregular holes will be eaten directly through paper. Other signs of feeding include faeces, scales, and small yellow stains. In addition, the presence of silverfish can be observed by coating a piece of paper with a thin layer of flour paste and placing it in an area suspected of harbouring silverfish. If silverfish are present, the paper will show small feeding marks.
Silverfish can live for nearly a year without feeding. Temperature is the most important factor influencing the Thysanurans (National Park 1980). Low temperatures result in high mortalities, especially among nymphs. Low relative humidities may reduce population growth.
Warm temperatures and high relative humidities favour most silverfish species. Controlling or eliminating moisture in areas infested with silverfish can reduce popUlations. Lower temperatures may also slow population growth by reducing rates of development and reproduction in silverfish. Sealing cracks and crevices where silverfish hide and breed also
reduces populations by reducing suitable habitat. Good sanitation practices are key to reducing silverfish infestations. In non-chemical means are ineffective boric acid could be spread thinly in areas where silverfish are active.
2.8.4.2 Moulds
According to Florian (2002:7-11) and McCrady (1999) fungus is the umbrella term for mould, mildew, mushrooms, yeasts, and puffballs. Mildew is a popular term for visible mould in the home. The term mould refers to the microscopic fungus, which put out root-like rhizomes, releasing spores, and living in colonies. At times mould is used interchangeably wit~ the word mildew. These micro-organisms damage the materials supporting them. The scattered spots known as foxing on paper prints or drawings is damage resulting from moulds.
The organic materials on which records and archives are created as well as dust and dirt provide nutrients required by the mould. Most materials used for creating documents are hygroscopic, that is, they attract and hold moisture. According to Wood Lee (1988), the five critical environmental factors that promote the growth and development of mould in collections are: the presence of mould spores, a source of nutrients, adequate moisture, suitable temperature for a particular variety of mould and limited air circulation.
Requirements for air and light vary. Most microbial forms grow in temperatures ranging from 59°F to 95° F (15°C to 350 C), although there are forms, which will grow at almost freezing point and others, which thrive at over 150° F (650 C). The average optimum for mould growth is usually stated to be in the vicinity of 860 F (300 C) (Wood Lee 1988; McCrady 1999). The optimum temperature for the growth of specific moulds is difficult to determine, in part because most of the information available on the growth and development of mould is derived from laboratory cultures rather than on site studies (Gilberg 1994; Wood Lee 1988). In addition, scientific information about mould growth and development is incomplete (Gilberg 1994).
The problem of controlling mould outbreaks in archival repositories is further complicated by the fact the metabolism of fungus is much like our own. What is deadly to mould can also be dangerous to human beings, for example, ethylene oxide effectively kills mould but is not safe
for humans. However, according to Kaplan (2001) a controlled environment with good air circulation, moderate temperature of say 68° to 72° F (200 C to 220 C) and a relative humidity ofless than 60% (ideally 35-40%) will dramatically aid in preventing large-scale outbreaks of mould. In 1994 it was also suggested by Florian (1994) that mould will not grow below 70%
RH. Cunha (J988) is of the view the most effective treatment for mould is the modification of the environment and removal of the mould growth from the affected item.
2.8.4.3 Other biological enemies of records and archives
Although there are many biological enemies of records and archives, this section examines some of them, which include beetles, booklice, cockroaches, mice and rats, and termites.
Beetles require an environment with high relative humidity. Beetles feed on drugs, leather, spices, dried vegetable matter, herbarium collections, com husk dolls, chocolate, breakfast foods, books, and rare manuscripts (parker 1988).
Booklice are found all over the world and they cause negligible damage to archival materials.
They are very tiny insects measuring 1 to 2 millimetres long. Most booklice infesting books and paper products have no wings (parker 1988). Generally, they do not feed on documentary materials. Rather, they feed on microscopic moulds that grow on paper products when they are stored in damp conditions. On the other hand, cockroaches develop and live in a climate with a wide range of temperatures. Faecal material of cockroaches, streaking, and chewing can cause considerable damage to documentary materials.
The house mouse is the most common rodent found in archives and records repositories. Mice seem to be able to invade practically any structure humankind has made. Rats may also invade holdings seeking out food and shelter. Damage to documentary materials comes from mice and rats destroying materials for nesting purposes and urinating and defecating on the materials. Mice and rats leave faecal droppings wherever they have been active. Other signs of infestations are gnaw marks; small, stained holes in floors and walls; and a pungent odour from their urine (parker 1988). Mice and rats can also gnaw the insulation of electrical wiring exposing archival holdings to electrical fire hazards that are discussed in section 2.9.1 below.
Many kinds of termites can be found throughout the world. They include dl)'Wood, dampwood, furniture, subterranean, Formosan and desert termites (parker 1988). Cellulosic materials make up the majority of a termite's diet. Since records and archives are largely composed of cellulose, they make up a banquet for termites. Termites could attack the structure of the building as well as consuming all paper products. They can be particularly destructive in storage areas where inspections of the holdings are not done regularly.
2.8.4.4 Pest management in records and archives
Preservation professionals have tried a variety of strategies to eliminate biological agents such as rodents, termites, silverfish, cockroaches, booklice and beetles. A lot of resources have been spent on over-the-counter products, professional services and restricted use pesticides.
And yet we still have pests. In fact, some experts suggest that we are doing little other than creating super-pests, with increasing resistance to more and more pesticides (Chicora Foundation 1994; Child 1999b). As a result of these factors and the harmful effects of some chemicals in pesticides, experts are increasingly recommending the 'least chemical approach"
such as the integrated pest management (!PM) strategy (Alpert 1994; Chicora Foundation 1994; Gilberg 1994; Parker 1988; Swartzburg 1995). It has been realized that some chemical treatments are carcinogenic, that is, suitable for eliminating biological factors, but very harmful to human beings and documentary materials. Documents are stained and damaged as result of contact with pesticides.
Although, many archival institutions have a contract for periodic spraying, they do not have answers to these questions: What is being sprayed? Why it is being sprayed? What evidence is there of pests in spite of the treatments? What written statement of the findings and work is submitted after each visit? (Chicora Foundation 1994). Unfortunately, archivists tend to rely entirely on the commercial company's good will and expertise. And yet the answers to these questions are critical to the effective management of pests in archival holdings.
For instance, a study conducted by Beckwith, Swanson and Iliams on biocides used as paper protectants found out that 28 commonly recommended fungicides were either ineffective in killing mould or damaging to paper (cited in Cunha 1988). The use of thymol and orthophenyl phenol crystals dissolved in alcohol as fungicides for mould has been radically curtailed by
recent studies showing that both can damage the eyes and upper respiratory system (Rhys- Lewis 1996:16). Thymol is believed to be the more toxic of the two, affecting the liver, kidneys, central nervous system and the circulatory system as well (Barton & Wellheiser
1985:63).
Fumigation may also be hazardous to human beings. The tenn fumigation is used in this study to include any treatment, which relies on exposure to the fumes, or vapour of a biocidal compound to kill biological organisms such mould, silverfish, beetles, cockroaches and others.
Ethylene oxide (ETa), which was developed in 1859, has been the commonly used fumigant in museums, libraries and archives since the 1950s. Ballard and Baer (1986) provide an excellent study of the history, use, effectiveness, and hazards of ethylene oxide. The two conclusively demonstrated that ethylene oxide (ETO) is only suitable for fumigating materials in a vacuum chamber equipped for the use of ETa.
Ethylene oxide (ETO), vikane and methyl bromide are gaseous fumigants that are highly toxic to human beings (McComb 1980). Ethylene dibromide and ethylene dichloride (in the fonn of Dowfume 75) are now considered safe for use only in public buildings with very special precautions and mechanical installation (Haines & Stuart 1986). In fact, many archival institutions including the Maine State Archives in the USA ceased the use of most of these fumigants in the early 1980s (Osier 1994).
It is surprising that some consultants still recommended methyl bromide for fumigating tennites at the National Archives of Zimbabwe (Hendriks and Kathpalia 1987:3). They did not state the dangers associated with the fumigant, especially when the appropriate fumigation chamber is not used. In addition, documentary materials tend to retain the pesticides that they are exposed to during treatment for a considerable length of time. The chemical residue might have side effects on humans. Pemaps, the lack of conscientiousness by some consultants prompted Rhys-Lewis (1999: 166) to counsel against the uncoordinated funding of preservation projects as well as using dubious consultants. Thus, he concluded:
There needs to be a greater control of aid funding. International projects must become better co-ordinated and ideally matched to individuals with the correct expertise (Rhys- Lewis 1999:166).
As a result of hazards posed by chemicals to both humans and documents, IPM has been recognized as the most effective pest management programme (Chicora Foundation 1994;
Swartzburg 1995 :61). The IPM approach relies primarily on non-chemical means, such as controlling climate, food sources, and building entry points, to prevent and manage pest infestation. Chemical treatments are used only in a crisis situation threatening rapid losses or when pests fail to succumb to more conservative methods (patkus 1999c). The use of deep- freezing conditions and anoxic (oxygen starving) treatments have proved very effective to museum collections and archivists are increasingly adopting these non-chemical means to deal with infestations in archives and records centres.
According to Gilberg (1994) the non-chemical strategies available for pest control include lowlhigh temperatures, modified atmospheres achieved through the use of nitrogen, argon and carbon dioxide, and radiation. He described most of these processes and gave some parameters for application like temperature, RH, time and energy of radiation. All these strategies can be effective if used correctly. For instance, freezing was successfully used at the Municipal Archives in Windsor, Ontario (Walsh 1997). The process involves getting the temperature down to zero degrees within 24 hours, freezing for a period of 48 additional hours and then bringing it back to room and or repository temperature within 24 hours. The Library of Virginia's new State Records Centre is another example of a repository that uses the "least chemical methods" (Huff 2001). They have a Pest Eradication Chamber to treat incoming archival records that happen to be infested with insects. The chamber is actually a specialized blast freezer that operates on the same principle of freezing as described for the Municipal Archives in Windsor above.
Understanding insect life cycles and habits are important in IPM. It usually forestalls the symptomatic treatment of infestation. In order to implement a building-wide or institution- wide pest management programme it is essential to be aware of the four categories of pests discussed by Alpert (1994). The four categories of pests are:
• those that specifically attack objects (e.g. powder post beetles, odd beetles, tineo/a;
• general building infestations (e.g. silverfish, dermestids, psocids, mites);
• those that attack structures (e.g. carpenter ants, anobeids, termites, carpenter ants, yellow jackets); and
• occasional invaders (e.g. spiders, flies).
Armed with these categories it is possible to implement th~ following basic components of an IPM programme in an archival environment (Adcock. n. d; Chicora Foundation 1994; Child
1999b; Swartzburg 1995:61):
• Regular monitoring of pest activity and the environment.
• Checking all material which is to be accessioned before it enters the archives.
• Use of sticky traps: traps have the advantage of catching insects before they can be found visually; they catch a wide range of species; they can be placed in areas which are difficult to inspect; trapped insects can be identified and counted; traps are also good indicators of an increase in insect numbers in one area as well as highlighting any failure of control treatment.
• Eliminating potential sources of infestation, for instance food and drink should not be consumed on the premises; and flowers and plants should not be allowed in the building.
• Maintaining an environment not conducive to pests and insects, which is clean, cool, dry, and well ventilated.
• Determining the tolerance level for a given pest population: How much damage is acceptable?
• Understanding the biology and life cycles of the pests involved in order to realistically develop strategies of mechanical, cultural and biological (and possibly chemical) control.
• Selecting and applying control methods, emphasizing the "least chemical" treatments.
• Evaluating treatment through continued monitoring.
If chemical control becomes unavoidable, archival institutions should enlist the services of a commercial fumigator. According to the Chicora Foundation (1994) commercial fumigator should maintain detailed records of all pesticide applications and make them available to the archival institution. The reports should include information on the target pest, the product used, the active ingredient of the product, the dilution used, the date applied, the total amount used, where (exactly) the product was used, the individual who applied the pesticide and completed the report, and any additional information which might be important (for example, complaints about the smell, or damage to collections).
The storage conditions of records and archival materials are key to long-term strategies for insect pest control in archives (Child 1999). Buildings and storage equipment can positively contribute to keeping holdings secure from pest invasions as well as controlling the environment, which is key to minimizing infestations by pests. Storage of records and archival materials are described in the following pages.
2.S.5 Storage of records and archival materials
The storage environment can have a significant effect on the long-term preservation of records and the information they contain (Read 1994). As a result, a number of expert~ in Africa believe that preservation efforts should lay more emphasis on proper storage of documentary materials than on expensive reformatting and deacidification projects (Alegbeleye 1999).
Proper storage of records and archival materials depends on good accommodation and equipment. The following subsections will shed more light on the concept of archival buildings and storage equipment.
2.8.5.1 Buildings
Records and archives need protection from the environment and biological factors. Protection of records and archives begin with the buildings in which they are housed. In fact, buildings have been characterised as "the first line of defence against a severe climate and various disasters" (The National Archives of the Netherlands et al. 2001 :77). Thus, architecture is key to the preservation of records and archives (Mackenzie 1995: 129; Mazikana 1997: 145).
However, many archival institutions in Africa are housed in buildings that are inadequate (Mazikana 1997:145). For instance, Botswana's major preservation problem stems from the lack of suitable buildings to house information resources (Kufa 1997:159).
Very little attention is being given to the nature of archival buildings in tropical countries (The National Archives of the Netherlands et al. 2001 :77). For instance, surprisingly enough the IFLA Section on Library Buildings and Equipment has paid little attention to the role of building designs in the preservation of documentary materials (Bisbrouck & Chauveinc 1999).
Another problem encountered in developing countries is that there are no national standards for archival buildings (The National Archives of the Netherlands et al. 2001 :80).