I No Risk
2.12 PRESERVATION TRAINING AND EDUCATION
done on time. Some of the planning activities that an archival institution can undertake in order to preserve its documentary materials are outlined at Appendix Fifteen.
Planning is not a panacea for all preservation problems. Indeed, Darling (1981b:182) noted,
"[p ]lanning is not the solution to the preservation problem, but it is an essential tool for drafting responses to the preservation challenge". Planning for preservation will help archivists to preserve their archival holdings for current and future use.
The formulation and implementation of preservation policies and plans, and the enforcement of preservation principles in archival institutions is going to be possible if the archive staff is armed with the approp~iate and preferably the most up-to-date knowledge on preservation issues (Albrecht-Kunszeri & Kastaly 2000:10). The next section looks at preservation training and education issues with special reference to Africa. Archival training in South Africa is dealt with in Chapter Three.
Darling (1981 a: 185), a preservation specialist, argued that the real impediment is not resource, but lack of preservation knowledge. According to Darling (1981 a: 185 -186):
Financial constraints are serious and will become more so; but until the preservation field reaches the point at which most people know what ought to be done, the lack of money to do it on a scale appropriate to the need is not terribly significant.
In 1976 Warren Haas more or less underscored the secondary role that finances playing in the preservation of documentary materials. In his view, "the rate at which things get done is a function of money; whether or not they are done at all is a function of people" (Haas 1980: 122). It is very unlikely that preservation efforts can succeed if the availability of resources is not supported by the right expertise.
Training at all levels can aid acquisition of knowledge and skills in preservation of records and archives. Knowledgeable and skilled staff are likely to expend scarce resources on projects that reflect the greatest preservation needs. Lack of essential knowledge and skills can be inimical to the preservation of documentary materials. For example, in Vietnam the poor physical conditions in libraries and archives, and problems of deteriorating collections were reportedly exacerbated by the well-meaning but uninformed activities of untrained staff (Henchy 1998).
Ultimately, preservation training and education are essential to the long-term development of preservation efforts (Feather 1990; Feather 1991:76; Kaplan & Banks 1990:267; Rhys-Lewis 1996:17; Rubin 1998:429; Swartzburg 1995:243). According to Kaplan and Banks (1990:270) and Garlick (1990: 263) archival training must begin to place greater emphasis on archival preservation, as the preservation of records and archives depends on adequately trained personnel. Raising the awareness of the importance of preservation without training staff in preservation management is a futile exercise (Eden 1997: 123).
Education and training are fundamental to the improvement of the preservation of records and archives in Africa. It is no wonder that the joint consultation held in 1973 between the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) and the International Council on Archives (lCA) on the physical protection of documentary materials identified training of staff
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as on of the four areas that needed urgent attention (Mazikana 1995:22). The im~ortance of training was also reiterated by the Pan-African Conference on the Preservation and Conservation of Library and Archival Materials held in Nairobi, Kenya from 21 to 25 June 1993. In that regard, the Conference recommended the expansion of training programmes for librarians a~d archivist, in order to devote more attention to preservation issues and the underlying sciences (Recommendations 1995:170). Preservation and conservation of archival materials is a highly skilled and technical field requiring among other things a sound grounding in the underlying sciences such as physics and chemistry.
In a study conducted in the United States of America, Lowell (1986:2) recommended provisions for educational opportunities for archivists to learn preservation administration concepts and training programmes that produce archives conservators and archives conservation technicians. Despite its date imprint, the findings of Lowell (1986) are still relevant to SSA.
The availability of suitable and effective training for developing countries is limited (Rhys- Lewis 1996:17). A survey in Namibia (Toteyemer & Stander 1991:43) concluded that, "the archivist profession is the most underdeveloped as far as training possibilities are concerned". Archival training in general, and preservation training in particular is lacking in many institutions in SSA (Adjei 1993:45; Forde 1998:36; Mazikana 1997:150). Consequently, there are inadequate numbers of trained personnel to manage records and archives on the continent (Adjei 1993:45). According to Mwiyeriwa (1985:224), the provision of trained manpower "is the one thing which will make or break African archivology".
Most African countries have paid little attention to the training of archivists and records managers (Mnjama 1996a:31). Similar observations were made by a UNESCO survey carried out by Mazikana in 1988 (Mazikana 1992: 16). A lesser amount of attention is given to training and education of archival preservationists and conservationists. An overview of archives and records management education and training in Anglophone Africa revealed that out of the 27 institutions that were studied only seven, that is, 25.9% had a specific module dedicated to the preservation and conservation of records and archives (Ngulube 2001c:169- 173). Perhaps, that partly explains why there is a dire lack of specialists trained in preservation
and conservation in SSA (Khayundi 1995:33; Mbaye 1995 :43). But, because preservation is a significant component of every archivist's job, archival training must begin to place greater emphasis on general preservation principles.
The lack of training in preservation in most tertiary institutions in SSA is in stark contrast to the situation in the developed countries. A study by Cloonan (1997:182) found out that library and information services tertiary institutions in countries like Britain, France, Germany,
. .
Canada, USA and Scandinavian countries offered at least one course in preservation, although, preservation was not a required course. Cloonan (1994; 1997) was of the view that preservation topics should be integrated into core curricula and courses in preservation for library school students, and continuing education courses for practitioners.
As a result of lack of significant archival training m Africa, most archivists and conservationists have received training from overseas (Khayundi 1995:34; Mazikana 1995:26; Nj ovana 1992: 11 7). Most of the training offered though good in itself, does not always suit Mrican conditions although it produces high calibre archivists and other information professionals. The economic, political, climatic and technological environments in Africa are very different from those in the developed world.
There is an urgent need to localize the training of archivists and other information professionals so that it suits the indigenous environment (Kaniki 1999:233; Made 1979:25;
Njovana 1992:118; Rosenberg 1999:18). In fact, Kaniki (1999:233) and Made (1979:25) have argued that education and training in information science is most effective and appropriate if provided in an environment that the learners would apply their skills and knowledge in. The case for the necessity of having programmes relevant to specific environments was made in section 1.3 of Chapter One.
Preservation and conservation of records and archives draws its methods from disciplines such as humanities and sciences, all in varying proportions. Routes into the field of preservation and conservation are wide ranging. Bines (1992:3) distinguished three ways of acquiring skills and knowledge:
•
apprenticeship, where knowledge and skills are learned largely on the job;• technocratic, where training focuses on the development of a knowledge-base through a formal syllabus or curriculum; and
• post-technocratic, where the focus is on knowledge-in-use and capability in practice situations.
All these routes have produced preservationists of acknowledged quality, with preservation benefiting from the diversity of background and approach. However, there is need to establish core competencies for preservationists through setting standards that define the range of necessary qualities and the threshold of achievement set for these qualities. In evaluating the knowledge and skills of preservationists, it would be necessary to use defined standards.
2.12.2 Skills and knowledge required for preserving records and archives
According to Feather (1990) different levels of knowledge and skill are required of different employees for carrying out preservation activities. Kathpalia (1990) placed preservation staff into two categories. On one hand, are specialists, that is, graduates who work as supervisors to organise facilities and guide staff where necessary; and on the other are technicians, that is, non-graduate staff who actually carry out the preservation and restoration work. Staff require basic skills and knowledge in preservation activities irrespective of their category in the conservation setting. Basic conservation skills and knowledge required for preserving records are presented at Appendix 10.
According to the National Council for Conservation-Restoration (UK) (2001), it is also within the conservator-restorer's competence to:
• develop conservation-restoration programmes or surveys;
• provide advice and technical assistance for conservation-restoration of cultural property;
• conduct research relating to conservation-restoration; and
• disseminate information gained from examination, treatment or research.
2.13 STANDARDS AND THE PRESERV A nON OF PUBLIC RECORDS AND ARCIDVES
Standards have been with us for a very long time. According Batik (1989:3) the code of Hammurabi, which was developed over four thousand years ago, includes instructions for the manufacture of a brick, with specifications for "the clay, straw and water content". The
concise Oxford English dictionary defines a standard as a thing or quality or specification by which something may be tested or measured (persall 2002: 1399). Standards serve as benchmarks for the measure of quality and extent of service or product. In a sense, standards lead to standardisation of processes for the benefit of all their users. Thus, Val Verman (cited in Cox 1992) defines standardisation as the:
Process of formulating and applying rules for an orderly approach to a specific activity for the benefit and with the cooperation of all concerned, and in particular for the promotion of optimum overall economy taking due account of the functional conditions and safety requirements. It determines not only the basis for the present but also for the future development and it should keep pace with progr~s.
The use of standards ensures that procedures and products will meet certain requirements, and that these procedures and products will remain consistent over time.
While adherence to some standards is mandatory, in other cases compliance is voluntary.
Voluntary standards demonstrate the best practice, which can be aspired to across a range of activities. This puts the onus on the practitioners and the end users to be aware of, and to insist on conformance with all standards governing a programme or service. Standards vary from exacting technical standards (specifications), through to broadly defined conventions (rules) to most generalised guidelines (models) (Avram, McCallum & Price 1982:197-189). Technical standards are specific, rigid and restrictive because they are, "an explicit definition that can be communicated, which is not subject to unilateral change without notice and which, if properly followed, will yield consistent results" (Crawford 1986:6-7).
Most of the standards listed at Appendix 14 would fall under this category. Standards are usually set through consensus and agreement. Conventions are relatively permissive and flexible as compared with technical standards. Application of rules or professional standards will result in similar and not necessarily identical products when applied correctly. The International Council on Archives (ICA) standards of archival description listed at Appendix 14 would be in this category. Guidelines provide a broad and general criterion against which to measure the quality of programmes or services. Handbooks, manuals and other guidelines provide models that can be generally applied.
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Effective implementation of standards hinges upon regular review and consideration for reaffirmation, revision or withdrawal. Most standards documents include a statement to this effect. Each revision supersedes the previous edition, making it imperative that the users ensure that any standard used is the latest version.
Historically, standards are divided in two broad categories, namely, national arid international standards. For instance, in South Africa there is the South Mrican Bureau of Standards (SABS) at the national level, while the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets the tone at the international level in conjunction with IC A in the archival field. South Africa's representative to ISO is the SABS (South African Bureau of Standards 2000). On the other hand, the representative to ICA is the National Archives and Records Service of South Mrica. The SABS is South Africa's official body for the preparation and publication of standards, and it is a statutory organisation governed by Act 29 of 1993. On the other hand, technical committees develop ISO standards. The International Organization for Standardizationffechnical Committee (ISO/TC) 46 is responsible for technical standards of practices relating to libraries, documentation and information centres, indexing and abstracting services, archives, information science and publishing.
International and national standards are documented agreements containing technical specifications or the precise criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of characteristics, to ensure that materials, processes and services conform to the desired requirements. However, most archives and archival institutions are not, in themselves, major producers of standards (Thomas 1990a). Apart from Australia, Denmark, Finland and New Zealand most of the standards on archival practice were either issued by governments, or, in the majority of cases, by national standards institutions. It does appear, however, that archivists were members of many of the committees, which drafted them. In Denmark the national archives in conjunction with the State Purchasing Office issue guidelines for the use of paper by state institutions. On the other hand, the National Archives of Finland is responsible for implementing a state administrative standard. The National Archives of Australia and Archives New Zealand have developed record keeping standards in their respective countries.
Like their counterparts in some parts of the developed world, national archives in developing countries should also take a strong leadership role in the development and application of standards that will ensure long-term access to, and preservation of records and archives. They should not relegate the task to professional associations and government. Prerequisite conditions for developing standards for archival practice suggested by the Working Group on Standards for Archival Description (1989) in the USA could be used as a model for developing archival standards in the developing world. As far as the Working Group on Standards for Archival Description (1989) was concerned, the development and implementation of standards required the archivists to:
• be aware of how the process of standards development and implementation operates;
• assess correctly the potential impact of standards;
• select sensible strategies for accomplishing their goals; and
• become actively engaged in the development and implementation process.
However, the area of standards development and implementation is grossly neglected in the developing world. It was evident from some discussions with archivists from the East and Southern Africa Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives (ESARBICA) that standards are not part of archival practice in countries like Angola, Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, Swaziland, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zanzibar and Zimbabwe (see Ngulube 2001a). If we are to be fully confident about preserving and giving access to archives we need to know that our practices and procedures conform to established standards.
Through our awareness, promotion and adoption of existing standards and through our efforts to create new standards to support and govern our work, we can advance our storage, preservation and access to records and archives efforts in a very real and positive way (Ngulube 2001a). In a nutshell, using standards enhances the lifespan of the media and thus of the information recorded on it (Massachusetts Board (MBLC) 1992: 19). The issue of standards as they pertain to the preservation of records and archives is further expounded on in the discussion on preservation of, and access to records and archives in Africa and South Africa in section 2.15 of this chapter and Chapter Three respectively.
The successful development and implementation of preservation standards in the ~anagement of records and archives require co-operation and collaboration among all the stakeholders. The public and government are among the important key stakeholders. It would be important to raise their awareness so that they support the preservation of records and archives as well as developing and implementing standards to support the preservation processes. The following section and section 3.4 in Chapter Three elaborates on the importance of awareness raising programmes.
2.14 RAISING AWARENESS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF PRE S ERV AnON
There exists a general lack of awareness of preservation and conservation of documentary materials, particularly in Africa. This partly explains why the Pan-Mrican Conference on the Preservation and Conservation of Library and Archival Materials held in Nairobi in 1993 recommended that information professionals should undertake awareness-raising activities at institutional and national levels (Recommendations 1995: 169). Awareness-raising is very critical to the success of any archival activities in South Africa where archives services are not regarded as a high priority (Kirkwood 1996:26).
At an institutional level staff should be 'preservation and conservation' aware (Feather &
Eden 1997: 19). However, raising awareness of staff with little professional archival training in areas of conservation is extremely difficult (Feather & Eden 1997: 19). If staff were aware of the importance of preserving records and archives, they would notice and quickly report damage to archival materials. Dealing with conservation problems at an early stage of their development would save resources because in most cases minor treatments would be enough to deal with a slight problem. Staff that are aware of the importance of preservation to prolonging the useful life of documents are likely to handle archival materials with the care that they require.
Users and other stakeholders should also be made aware about archival materials and the importance of preserving them. According to Eden and Feather (I997) many people coming into archives and record offices do not appreciate that archives should be handled with a lot of care because of the nature of the materials they are made from as well as the fact that most items are unique and irreplaceable. Users should be educated on the importance of
preservation of records and archives, and the inherent weaknesses of the media that they are recorded on.
The old adage: "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" applies directly to raising awareness among users of the importance of preservation. Outreach and public programming activities are fundamental to public awareness-raising.
2.15 PRESERV A nON AND ACCESS TO PUBLIC RECORDS AND ARCHIVES IN AFRICA
The preservation of records and archives in Africa is generally unsatisfactory. Access to information contained in records and archives is also limited. The following subsections elaborate on issues relating to preservation and access to records and archives in Africa.
2.15.1 Preservation chaUenges
The International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) and the International Council on Archives (ICA) were once commissioned by UNESCO to review preservation related programmes worldwide. The review revealed that the situation was highly unsatisfactory (Musembi 1995: 11). The evaluation also showed that environmental factors like high and fluctuating temperatures and relative humidity, and inadequate financial resources hampered preservation activities in Africa (Musembi 1995:11).
Temperature and humidity are generally high and most archival collections end up being destroyed by bacteria, mildew and insects of which most of the archival institutions are ill- equipped to fight due to lack of funds. Thus, archival institutions in Africa face more or less the same problems in preserving their materials. They lack resources, equipment and trained manpower (Coates 1995:38; Endra 1993; Mazikana 1995:26). Materials and equipment for conservation are not available both at the national archives and tertiary institutions (Matwale 1995:52). As a result training and education in archival conservation has remained highly unsatisfactory.lI There was also lack of sufficiently trained personnel to operate both existing
liThe observation is also based on the author's experience as a lecturer at the University of Natal and member of the Archives and Records Management Standards Generating Board of South Mrica in the framework of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) 2000-