CHAPTER 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
3.3 CHEMISTRY CONTEXT
3.3.3 The Brønsted Model
A similar process is shown by the following equations for sodium carbonate:
Na2CO3(s) 2Na+(aq) + CO32–(aq) and CO3
2–(aq) + 2H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) + 2OH–(aq) As the equations above show, the aspect of the protective belt needed to explain the phenomenon of acidic or basic solutions also relies on the existence of carbonic acid (H2CO3) which is again merely postulated. The phenomenon of basic solutions for salts is also explained much more simply by the Brønsted model, as will be shown below.
3.3.2.3 Terminology: dissociation and ionization in the Arrhenius model.
The terms ionization and dissociation appear to have been used interchangeably to indicate the process whereby electrolytes provide ions in solution. For example “According to this theory strong acids and bases, as well as salts, are in extreme dilution completely dissociated”
Arrhenius, 1903, p51) and “ionization of sodium chloride...” (Arrhenius, 1912). Even with modern knowledge of bonding, de Vos and Pilot (2001) use ionization in relation to acids and bases in solution. For clarity I have used dissociation for all these processes concerning the Arrhenius model.
3.3.3.1 Acid-base species are particles in the Brønsted model
Most fundamentally, the model focuses on molecular or ionic species behaving as acids and bases rather than classifying macroscopic substances, although this was not explicit in early publications; for instance, Lowry (1924, p 1021) states: “An acid may be defined as a hydride from which a proton can be detached” and Brønsted (1926, p 777) writes: “An acid is a substance able to split off H+ ions simultaneously forming a base” (my italics). However, later on the same page, Brønsted clarifies that his scheme “involves the admittance of the acid and base properties being in principle assignable to ions as well as neutral molecules”. In a later publication, this is clarified by: “An acid is a molecule with a tendency to split off a hydrogen nucleus” (my italics) and a few sentences later: “some of the molecules are neutral and others electrically charged” (Brønsted & Guggenheim, 1927, p 2554). Clearly, Brønsted had particles rather than substances in mind. Accordingly, they should be referred to as species rather than substances (Loeffler, 1989). Furthermore, although Kolb (1978, p462) asserts that Brønsted had “significantly broadened the definition of the word base...”, many common Arrhenius bases such as NaOH cannot be placed directly into the Brønsted reaction scheme. For instance examples of (electrically) neutral bases include NH3 (Brønsted, 1923; Kolb, 1978) and H2O (Kolb, 1978), whereas, neither author mentions NaOH or KOH. Furthermore, Lowry (1923, p46) explains “The hydroxyl ion is itself a strong base, since it is capable of accepting the ...
hydrogen ions.” If NaOH was a Brønsted base, it would have a conjugate acid but Brønsted (1926) noted that sodium ions in aqueous solution demonstrated no acidic properties, unlike magnesium and aluminium ions. Moreover, in the latter cases, he explains that it is the hydrated cation which is capable of donating a proton, so acting as an acid. Consequently, for metal hydroxides such as NaOH or KOH, base no longer refers to the substance, or even the simple ionic formula unit, but rather the hydroxide ions produced on dissolution (Lowry,1923).
Relating the Brønsted model to such substances, or their chemical formula, is an example of a hybrid model (de Vos & Pilot, 2001). In addition, because the term alkali relates to substances it has no place in the Brønsted model (Schmidt & Volke, 2003).
The IUPAC definitions for modern chemists promote an authentic model. A Brønsted acid is “a molecular entity or chemical species capable of donating a hydron”. Similarly, a Brønsted base is “a molecular entity capable of accepting a hydron” (McNaught & Wilkinson, 1997).
Nevertheless, a hybrid model persists in some definitions of an acid even in modern chemistry
handbooks, as shown by Lide (2002) “In the Brønsted definition, an acid is a substance that donates a proton in any type of reaction ... a base is a substance capable of accepting a proton in any type of reaction” (my italics). The term ‘hydron’ used in IUPAC definitions indicates all hydrogen isotopes, represented as H+ (McNaught & Wilkinson, 1997). However, this term has not been generally accepted in text books – even at tertiary level – (pers.com Southway) so in the current work I have retained the word ‘proton’.
3.3.3.2 Neutralization in the Brønsted model
Because a Brønsted scheme includes non-aqueous systems, water is not necessarily a product and, again, salts have no place in this reaction scheme. Moreover, in 1923, Brønsted clarified:
“The hydroxyl ion in principle has no special position as a bearer of basic properties.” Indeed, neutralization is not unique; rather it is but one of many acid-base reactions, as Schmidt (1995) clarifies: “The term neutralization (in its original meaning) cannot be applied to acid-base reactions according to Brønsted.” Oversby (2000a) explains further: neutralization is a process rather than a point or position, shown for an aqueous system by the particular ionic equation:
H3O+ + OH– H2O + H2O
In this analysis, I use “neutralization” in the Brønsted model to mean the reaction between solvated protons and hydroxyl ions. In this way it is but one of many acid-base reactions alongside hydrolysis or ionization. All of these may or may not proceed to completion according to context. Furthermore, because it does not cover the customary macroscopic acid- base neutralization reaction between substances, this model has limited application in a quantitative analytical context such as titration calculations.
3.3.3.3 Acid-base strength in the Brønsted model
The Brønsted model treats acid-base strength as comparative; there is no dichotomous classification as weak or strong. In this way, some acids or bases are simply stronger or weaker than others, as measured by how readily acids will donate protons or bases will accept protons.
Accordingly, many acid-base species can be regarded as amphoteric, because they can behave as either proton donors or acceptors under the influence of other species. Furthermore, because molecules of water (or other solvents) may themselves be proton donors or acceptors, Brønsted (1926) clarifies that comparison of acid-base strength should be made in the same solvent. In aqueous systems, water molecules mask strength differences between two very strong acids or between two very weak acids – termed the ‘levelling effect of the solvent’(Kolb, 1978).
3.3.3.4 Terminology: dissociation and ionization in the Brønsted model
In a similar fashion to the Arrhenius model (see Section 3.3.2.3), these two terms are interchanged. Brønsted appears to use dissociation in relation to acids but ionization with respect to bases (e.g. Brønsted, 1926), whereas (Lowry, 1924, p13) clearly differentiates: “...
the ionisation of an acid may be, not dissociation as expressed by an equation such as ..., but a double decomposition of the type ...”. IUPAC definitions clarify as follows. Dissociation is
“The separation of a molecular entity into two or more molecular entities” whereas ionization is given as “The generation of one or more ions.” (McNaught & Wilkinson, 1997). This suggests that ionization creates ions that were not previously there, whereas dissociation merely separates the constituents. Furthermore, in the context of identifying student conceptions, Demerouti et al. (2004) and Kousathana et al. (2005) distinguish them similarly: Dissociation of a substance in water is the phenomenon where ions are released during the dissolution of ionic compounds and ionization of a substance in water is the phenomenon where ions are created during the dissolution of molecular compounds. Accordingly, in the interests of distinguishing the interactions which characterise the Brønsted model from the Arrhenius model, I prefer the term ionization to indicate generation of ions which did not previously exist through an interaction between two species or between molecules of the same species as in the self-ionization of water.
To illustrate: when acidic or basic substances dissolve in water, acid or base polar molecules interact with polar solvent molecules to form ions according to the model for acid-base reactions shown by ionic equations:
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl– or NH3 + H2O NH4
+ + OH–
HCl molecules will not ionize unless base molecules H2O are present to accept protons, and similarly, base molecules NH3 molecules need acid molecules H2O in order to ionize (Brønsted, 1926). Consequently, the Brønsted model implies that when hydrogen chloride and ammonia dissolve in water, ions are created from molecules; in other words, the substances ionize. When water ionizes, it can be seen as autoprotolysis given by: H2O + H2O OH– + H3O+
Ionization is a more complex concept than dissociation. It is also more realistic: Hawkes (1992) gives evidence of the energy required to dissociate HCl molecules and likens the idea of this happening of its own accord to donating a purse to a mugger. There need to be two species (acid and base) interacting as in the model for ionization. Indeed, Sacks (2007) promotes the phrase ‘proton extractors’ to describe Brønsted bases. A further potentially confusing aspect concerns Brønsted acids and bases that are already ions such as NH4
+ and OH–, where the
notion of how well acids or bases are dissociated is completely inappropriate; acid and base are already single ionic species. Corresponding equilibrium constants (commonly referred to as
‘dissociation constants’) are given for acid species (Vogel, 1961; Skoog, et al., 1996):
] HCl [
] Cl ].[
O H KaHCl [ 3
−
= + and
] NH [
] OH ].[
NH K [
3 4 aNH4
+ −
=
+
3.3.3.5 Hydrolysis of salts according to the Brønsted model
Acid-base conjugate pairs have reciprocal strengths, so that a weaker acid gives rise to a stronger conjugate base and vice versa. This aspect gives a simple explanation of acidic or basic properties of salts in aqueous solution. Ammonium chloride dissociates into ammonium and chloride ions. Ammonium ions are better hydrogen ion donors than water molecules (that is stronger acids) so the solution will exhibit acidic properties. Correspondingly, sodium ethanoate (acetate) dissociates into ethanoate (acetate) ions and sodium ions. Ethanoate ions are better hydrogen ion acceptors than water molecules (that is stronger bases) so the solution exhibits basic properties.
3.3.3.6 Aspects of the protective belt for the Brønsted model
Acidic behaviour has been shown with aqueous solutions of substances such as aluminium chloride, which have no hydrogen to donate. Brønsted (1926) explains such aspects in terms of hydrated aluminium ions, [Al(H2O)6]3+, acting as proton donors. These properties are explained more directly with the Lewis model.