The research sites consists of three villages namely Cwebe, Mbelu and Ntilini. These villages are approximately 150kms from the major town of Umtata (Eastern Cape) and can be accessed using a gravel road. The demographics of the areas consist of women, young children and older men, since the absence of employment opportunities purged younger economically active men to areas where employment is available. The younger and middle-aged men migrate mainly to the Pretoria- Witwatersrand-Vereeneging (PWV) area in Gauteng Province to work on the mines, where earning capacities are comparatively better. The region became popular since 1886 when gold was first discovered in South Africa. They collectively, together with neighbouring industrial areas generate at least 75 per cent of the country’s financial wealth. Most economically active young Black men have endured unskilled and semi-skilled careers in the mines for the remainder of their lives; and their households have become beneficiaries almost exclusively through remittances from these employment hubs.
The households in the three villages are sparse and scattered and the terrain is mountainous which makes it difficult for people to access water or for government to provide proper water reticulation.
Ntilini and Mbelu villages for example source water from the Mhashe River which is located in a deep and almost inaccessible gorge. The area also has five dry boreholes which are not maintained. Cwebe residents collect their water from the Nthlonyane River as well as from a number of springs and streams. Tradition is a reinforcing factor in their determination to remain on their land because their ancestors are buried there. Relocation to any other area will only be for the sake of employment.
2.3.1 Village Description
2.3.1.1 Cwebe
Cwebe village is located on both sides of the Nthlonyane River close to the coast near the Dwesa Nature Reserve. It consists of about 466 households and an estimated population of 2 097 based on the record from the traditional leader’s registery.
Figure 1 Google Earth image showing Cwebe Village
Most of the households rely mainly on springs near their homes and the river as a water source. There are six boreholes in Cwebe, all of which have been installed with pumps around them. The households close to these boreholes have avoided their use for drinking water because of its discolouration and taste. However, they were hardly of significance for the study during fieldwork periods because they were dry.
The springs in Cwebe are located down slope in relation to the dwelling places, with the nearest house located about 100m from a spring. There are no sanitation facilities in the area, households practice open defecation and human waste was visible within 10 meters from water sources. This is indicative of households, human water and animal waste contaminate water. Table 24 in chapter 3 provides the
evident of the Council For Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) water quality assessment from Mbashe River.
The main agricultural activities are vegetable gardens and dry land farming of maize with cattle manure used as an organic fertilizer. The households share the same water sources with cattle and other domestic animals since the springs are not fenced or protected. Evidence of cow dung was visible during research in the area. In order to purify the water women use jik (a local bleach) in the process of boiling the water. An added measure through the use of ceramic filters are used to ensure that the remaining debris is removed from the water, before it is made drinkable.
2.3.1.2 Mbelu
Mbelu village is a small and remote settlement, situated along the Mbashe River, which is used as the main source of drinking water. There are 59 scattered households and an estimated 265 people as the de facto population. There is only one spring within Mbelu that is not in use.
The main agricultural activities are dry land farming of maize with cattle manure used as an organic fertilizer and small vegetable gardens around the homesteads. There are no sanitation facilities in the
Figure 2 Google Earth image showing Mbelu Village
area, households practice open defecation and human waste was visible within 5 meters from the water sources.
The spring is located down slope in relation to the dwelling places with the nearest house located about 300m from the spring. Animal prints and animal waste are scattered in and around the spring and on the banks of the river
2.3.1.3 Ntilini
Ntilini village is also located along the Mbashe River approximately 5 kms upstream and consists of about 73 households and an estimated 329 people. The households use the river as a main source of drinking water together with a number of small springs. The households are scattered and situated along the access road on the ridge. The springs are down the slope of the dwellings with the nearest house located about 200m from the springs. Animal prints and animal waste are scattered in and around the springs.
The main agricultural activities are dry land farming of maize with cattle manure used as an organic fertilizer and small vegetable gardens around the homestead. There are only a few sanitation facilities
in the area, the majority of households practice open defecation and human excreta was visible within metres of the water sources
and springs. All these (human excreta, animal waste and runoff from agricultural land) are potential contamination sources for the spring outlets located down slope and for the river.