Personally, my mother has played an important role in developing my identity and shaping the individual I am today. Located on the wild coast of South Africa's Eastern Cape province, scattered families are a characteristic feature of the area's undulating terrain.
Introduction
In South Africa, challenges stem from the fact that 15 million people, according to the 2011 census, still live in rural areas where water scarcity remains a perennial problem. This study focuses on water scarcity and problems faced by women in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa with a particular focus on three areas in the Amatole District Municipality viz.
Background Of The Study
An Analytical Framework: The Causal Effect Of Water Scarcity On Women In Low-
One of the critical components of the MDGs is to increase access to domestic water supply, coupled with improved management and development of water resources in rural areas (Lenton, et al., 2008). It is necessary to assess the number, geographical location, yield, reliability, season and quality of water sources to ensure that rural households are water secure (Kahinda, et al., 2007).
The Co-Existences Flanked By Water Scarcities And Gender Typecasting
It aims to enable them to collect rainwater and excavate underground water for effective management and a pursuit of a sustainable solution (Malley, et al., 2008). Improved water supply services in rural areas can in turn give women more time for productive endeavors, adult education, empowerment activities and leisure.
Exploring The Modalities Underlying Access To Water For Gender Mainstreaming
In the context of the rural communities, the gender mainstreaming strategy is separate from the traditions and cultural beliefs of most villages. South Africa, like many other countries, faces a number of unmanageable challenges in applying the gender mainstreaming strategy.
Problem Statement
Research Questions
What is the impact of family dynamics on water management, supply and access in Cwebe, Ntilini and Mbelu. How far it is and how much time you spend to access water.
Research Objectives
What is the extent to which women's and men's opinions are taken into account in relation to water provision and access in Cwebe, Ntilini and Mbelu. What are the appropriate alternative coping mechanisms and adaptations to water scarcity for women in Cwebe, Ntilini and Mbelu.
Significant Contribution Of The Study
- The South African Legislative Framework On Water Policy
- Constitutional Rights To Water
- Access To Water Policy
- Policy Challenges To Water Delivery
The Basic Rights to Water Access Bill was linked to the National Water Act (NWA) and the Water Services Act (WSA). Section 27 (2) of the progressive framework states that "The State shall take reasonable legislative and other measures, within its available resources, to achieve the progressive realization of each of these rights." Such resources include access to water as a fundamental right.
Chapter Layout
This chapter identifies how women's and men's opinions are taken into account regarding water supply and access in Cwebe, Ntilini and Mbelu. This chapter explores the household dynamics of management, delivery and access to water in Cwebe, Ntilini and Mbelu.
Conclusion
The research was based on the answers of selected respondents within the target population regarding the dynamics of households in the management, supply and access to water. The purpose of this chapter was to explore and recommend appropriate alternative water scarcity management and adaptation mechanisms for women in Cwebe, Ntilini and Mbelu.
Introduction
Fieldwork Planning
The main reason why services such as education and health have not fully collapsed in the DRC is related to the role that church-based structures and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have played since the Mobutu era. The local government in the area attracted considerable negative media publicity with detailed accounts of service delivery failure.
Brief Site Description
Village Description
Animal prints and animal waste are scattered in and around the fountain and on the banks of the river. The fountains are down the slope from the houses with the nearest house about 200m from the fountains.
Community Entry
Interaction With Community Members/ Community Reception
I helped women collect water, walked long distances with them to water sources and returned to their homes. It was in these journeys to and from families to the water points and back that at least two issues were consolidated.
Community Life
Households And The Division Of Labour
Women and young girls and boys tend to stay in the villages while their husbands, fathers and brothers support their families from afar. These households showed signs of upward class mobility, particularly in terms of the educational opportunities they afforded their children.
Research Trail
Research Approach
Similarly, Wakefield and Fleming emphasize that a qualitative research method attempts to form a comprehensive concept of social conditions. Litchman adds that qualitative research often involves in-depth interviews or observing people in their environment and natural surroundings.
Sources Of Data
Secondary Data
Primary Data
Sampling
Sampling Procedure And Sample Size
Reason For Methodological Approach
Tools And Techniques
The conditions caught on camera illustrate many of the conditions that are a continuation of economic and social stagnation since the inauguration of the African National Congress (ANC) in April 1994 under political control of the country. It remained the basis of our conversations during interviews, casual interactions and my routine hourly observations of the past few days in Amathole district.
Data Collection Process
Data Collection Technique
At each of these levels, the dynamics of observation produced both differences in the social sphere of homes and male-dominated public spaces. The roles and responsibilities between both genders were respected and rooted in the social expectations anchored in the villages.
Data Analysis
The data analysis phase was followed by a categorization phase, using common themes and subthemes of the study. While building a new conceptual framework, I derived concepts from the results of the data analysis, from the initial conceptual framework and from the literature review.
Delimitations Of Study
Although the data obtained from the sample suggested certain conclusions, the interpretation of the results went beyond the set of numbers collected. As I continued the literature review, I constructed a new conceptual framework that considered the new concepts gained from the study process.
Conclusion
It was important to continue to connect and compare the pre-conceptual framework with theories and concepts from the literature in order to support the process and data analysis. This required a comprehensive consideration of the context-based nuances of the whole picture emerging from the three villages.
Introduction
Local Governance Context
Social And Economic Set Up Of the three Sites
Although these classifications are useful, they do not fully capture the social milieu of the communities selected for this study. The households in each community tend to congregate along the roads and are generally separated from the fields; features characteristic of "improvement" planning, although these villages were not directly subject to such social reorganization in their history.
Demographics Of Sites
Percentile Range Of Per Capita Income Per Month In The Three Villages
The schools tend to be a place of communal activity and the shops the other focus of social activity. It is also clear that incomes are very low averaging between R1200 and R1799 for average households of at least 15 percent of households.
Per Capita Income Distribution
Monthly Per Capita Income And Family Size in Percentage
Type Of Water Source
- Access And Availability Of Water
- Water Source And Exact Name Of The Water Source Combined
- Name Of Water Source And Number Of Accessed Households
- Distance To And From Water Source, Categories
- Water Distance Per Metres From To Water Source By Village
- Time To And From Water Source
- Time To And From Water Source By Village
- Time And Distance, Distance By Time Categories
- Time Taken At Three Sites, Time Categories
- Water Source And Time Spent
- Amount Of Water Collected Per Day
- Household Daily Collection of Water By Size Of Household
- Amount Of Water Collected And Source Of Water
- Attitudes To Collecting Water
The type of remote villages near major water bodies explains the difference in the number of water sources. The number of water sources appears to be related to the size of the community and to the accessibility of an important water source such as a river.
Rainwater Harvesting
A series of questions assessed the use of rainwater harvesting and a fairly large proportion of households in the communities indicated that 73 out of 75 households adopted some form of RWH. Collecting rainwater is certainly the largest investment that some households in the three villages make.
Contamination Of Water Sources
The table 22 shows that more households in all three villages harvest rainwater-use barrels compared to harvesting in a Jojo. Under such conditions, urine and faecal material can easily gain access to nearby water sources and move through the soil surface to enter the water table.
Quality Of Water
In Mbelu, the number of faecal coliforms (bacteria found in the digestive tract of mammals and an indicator of pollution) is 35,000, while in Ntilini it is 810; the standard is 0. In Mbelu the number of streptococci is 1000 and in Ntilini 320; both are higher than the 0 standard.
Water Treatment
Environmental Hygiene
Observation of aspects of hygiene in the household, yard, drinking water container and interior of the houses and associated questions are covered in the survey instrument. However, the field workers' observation of container hygiene indicates a discrepancy between alleged practice and an examination of the containers.
Water And People Living With HIV/AIDS (PLWHA)
Container hygiene is part of the cycle of hygienic practices necessary to rule out water-related diseases. This was effectively communicated in the health clubs and home visits and although an attempt was made to involve the community in a wider discussion of the issues, these initiatives did not lead to the expected result in open discussion of the issues.
Conclusion
Since the stigma associated with HIV/AIDS is still one of the dominant social aspects of the disease, it was not possible to make a more rounded assessment of social aspects of the disease. Thus, the results of the study and the observations are not as strong on this key issue as they could be, and further research is needed in this area.
Introduction
However, there are limits to this approach in that the construction and maintenance costs lie in the hands of the households that initiated the construction of the self-sufficiency sources (Carter, 2006). It must develop in such a way that both men's and women's needs are recognized and fulfilled accordingly.
Triangulation And Significance Of Theory To Research
- Liberal Feminism
- The Human Rights Based Approach
- Radical Feminist Theory
- Marxist Feminist Theory
- Masculinity Theory
- Conceptualising Gender Mainstreaming
- Gender And Development Initiatives
- Gendered Division Of Labour
Firestone further states that female reproduction is the reason for the division of labor between men and women. Some of the concerns are that men and women exhibit socially and culturally determined differences.
Integrated Water Resource Management
Community work can be considered service work, which includes caring for the sick or elderly and performing household chores. But while IWRM is certainly vague in many respects, certain aspects of the approach have had tangible effects on the water sector.
Community Participation
As a result of both these factors, community participation became a central component of the broad framework of IWRM. Although the earliest documented experiences of community involvement in water supply projects date from the late 1960s [and] the first use of 'community participation'.
Conclusion
The natural environment shapes the way poor women and men access water and the way they relate to water management structures. Women and men in marginalized areas lacking infrastructure and removed from central government will access water through various local systems, rather than through organized services provided by governments.
Introduction
Anthropological Research on Reciprocity
- Reciprocity As A Social Foundation
- Reciprocity As A System Of Social Capital And Collective Action
- Rural Reciprocity
- Sociability, Reciprocity, And The Laughlin-Brady Model
- Response Cycles to scarcity
These types of reciprocity are manifested in the daily fabric of community members' lives. We remove any litter that falls into the stream and animal droppings from the water source.
Scarcity Of Water And Its Impact On South African Rural Communities
Observation Of Public Social Interactions
Public social interaction was lowest at the edges of towns and especially near the rivers. Most community members wash their clothes at the river, some of which can take almost half a day at the river, depending on the amount to be washed.
Social Capital In The Three Villages
Public social interaction was highest around the taxi stand where vendors and drivers congregate, around the South African Social Security Agency (SASSA) pay point on payday, and in front of the clinic. It is highly significant that Amathole's waterways are the settlement's social black holes, as water collection points are commonly known as places of social interaction.
Measures Of Social Capital
The study also revealed that participants in the three villages used obligations and norms of social capital and social values, especially trust and social networks, to navigate their daily struggles. Study participants used social capital in activities such as cooperation, which Woolcock described as a form of trust that is a byproduct of other collective efforts, such as participation in civil associations.
Cultural Systems And Values Are Unique
Some younger women collected water for the women working in the garden and at certain times they brought cooked lunch. I wish I could get a job in the city because I don't like living in this situation (Participant in Cwebe).
Conclusion
In the literature on the rural poor, scholars have shown how each cultural institution shapes reciprocal exchanges. The men in the community will help dig the grave, while the women collect water, cook and do other activities.
Introduction
Culture And Tradition In The Villages
Livestock such as cattle and sheep are kept in kraals at night and let out to graze during the day. Being always busy with household chores, women do not have extra time to participate in the water management sector, even though it is their responsibility to ensure that their households have enough water.
Developmental Structure In The Village
The stands or yards in the village are very important, giving people an extra space where they can also practice self-sufficient agriculture. Subsistence farming is common in the villages and is the basis of survival for most villagers.
Basic Services
Transportation
As a result, there is a shortage of public transport in the area, especially taxis during the rainy season. The geographical, cultural and development infrastructure of the three towns collectively opposes the smooth implementation of the Gender Mainstreaming and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) initiatives in the towns.
The Characteristics Of The Gender Mainstreaming Initiatives In The Three Villages
- Medical Facilities
- Crèches In The Village
- Water In The Yards
- Encouraging Women
- Measures Ensuring Women’s Opportunities
- Mechanisms Ensuring That Women Hold Position In Water Committee
- Consulting, Raising Awareness
- Ensuring That Men And Women Can Perform ‘Feminine' And ‘Masculine' Roles 93
Human rights do not help much in the village, because most people still live traditionally. Again, there are no specific consultation mechanisms designed to listen to the voices of women in the village.
Women's Participation In The Processes Of The Water Resources Management
- The Capacity Provided To Women For Participation
- Women’s Access To The Positions In The Water Committee
- Management In The Village
- Challenges Faced In The Application Of The Gender Mainstreaming Initiatives
- Challenges Faced When Releasing Women
- Challenges Faced In Capacitating And Empowering Women
- Challenges Faced In Processes Of Consultation And Consideration Of Women’s
- Challenges Faced In The Determination And Allocation Of Roles For Males And
Another challenge is that most women are not interested in managing water resources in villages. Most women were not interested and committed to using gender mainstreaming initiatives in the water resource management sector.
Summary Of Quantitative And Qualitative Findings
When seeking a comprehensive solution to the problems of safe drinking water, the interests of RWH must be taken into account. Despite these and other challenges, RWH in high rainfall areas should be given attention and integrated into a comprehensive approach to achieve overall adequacy of safe drinking water in remote rural areas.
Water Sources
The municipality should use this approach to subsidize RWH initiatives in reticulation planning, as it is not easy to reach every single household or reduce the distance to water pipes due to the scattered population and mountainous topography.
Rainwater Harvesting
The investment in RWH tanks can be a kind of community investment, as owners are approached during the dry season to provide drinking water to their neighbors. The quote below is from an informant with the most developed system: the large tanks provide sufficient drinking water for the entire dry season.6 The water barrels do not provide storage over time, but allow easy access during the wet season to water in the household. .
Time And Distance To And From Water Sources
The obligation to harvest rainwater can be explained through its advantages in reliability and access. If used sparingly at times, 2.5 kiloliter tanks can provide drinking water for a longer period from a source close to the household itself.
Water Quantity And Per Capita Water Use
The households in the survey show a considerable range of water use per capita, but almost half of those surveyed have a volume of water use equal to or greater than 20 liters per capita per day – the equivalent of a bucket of water for each person and a little less than the national standard of 25 liters per capita per day. Water use is somewhat related to the time it takes with the per capita water consumption taking with greater time.
Household Size And Water Use
The explanation for the lack of a clearer and clearer relationship could be that water sources that are generally closer to households may not have the necessary flow to support the livelihoods of a large number of households using the resources.
Water Quality
The low coverage of toilets and the regular use of “the bush” also imply that drainage to surface water sources is highly polluted. This visual assessment of the water sources is confirmed in the groundwater survey of the water sources in the villages included in the study.
Conclusion And Recommendations
A survey of groundwater and surface water sources was conducted by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 2009, and samples were taken from each of the important groundwater sources and tested. They found that the water quality in almost all water sources is "hazardous" as it does not meet national water quality standards.
Recommendations
Fewtrell, Lorna, Kaufmann, Rachel B., Kay, David, Enanoria, Wayne, Haller, Laurence, & Colford, John M., Jr. 2005).“Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis,” The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 5: 42–52. Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Gender Needs. 2006), Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS) Coverage in Swaziland: Towards Achieving the Millennium Development Goals, Elsevier Physics and Chemistry Onabolu, B and Ndlovu, M. The WRC Community-Based Health and Hygiene Model and Implementation Kit.
