Cicero, M., et al.: Training and validating a deep convolutional neural network for computer-aided detection and classification of abnormalities on frontal chest

Chest X-Ray Pre-processing

4. Cicero, M., et al.: Training and validating a deep convolutional neural network for computer-aided detection and classification of abnormalities on frontal chest

Ensemble of CNN for TB Classification 557 despite having the training, validation and test set from different datasets. The model performed well when compared with recent Ensemble CAD systems as shown in Table 3.

Table 3.

Proposed model compared with related work. The performances are measured in terms of Accuracy (ACC) and Area Under Curve (AUC)

Authors ref Models combined Performance (%)

Hijazi et al. [10] 2 89.77

Hernandez et al. [9] 3 86.40

Ayaz et al. [2] 6 0.99

Proposed

3 96.14

Hijazi et al. [10], Hernandez et al. [9], and the Proposed model are evaluated using the accuracy, while Ayaz et al. [2] is measured using area under the curve.

5 Conclusion

An Ensemble model comprising of multiple pre-trained models is presented in this study to aid early and accurate TB diagnosis from CXR. The proposed model is trained on one dataset and tested on an alternative dataset, resulting in a good generalization. Due to limited datasets in medical fields, the dataset were augmented along with other techniques to control overfitting. However, the individual CNN classifier achieved good results and was improved through the Ensemble classifier. The proposed model can also be deployed to detect other pulmonary abnormalities. Future work will focus on developing a robust CAD system that could accurately identify foreign objects that may be seen on CXR.

Objects such as “pieces of bones, coins, rings, or button found in the chest can be likened to one of many TB manifestations which will result in misclassification.

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3.4.2 Conclusion

The proposed Ensemble technique takes advantage of the strength of different pre- trained CNN models such that a misclassified image from model “A” can be correctly classified by model “B” or “C”. Therefore, fusing several classifiers has proven to achieve state-of-the-art performance and increase the rate of detection compared to any stand-alone classifier.

3.5 Ensemble of EfficientNets for the Diagnosis of Tuberculosis

3.5.1 Introduction

This section introduces a research paper that implemented a lightweight Efficient- Nets [53], a new CNN model that achieved state-of-the-art performance on Ima- geNet [9] for the classification of TB. The EfficientNets was explored due to being smaller with fewer parameters, faster, and generalized well on popular transfer learning tasks to obtain higher accuracy. Precisely, five variants of EfficientNets were fine-tuned on two benchmark CXR datasets and incorporated a global aver- age pooling (GAP) to scale down the number of parameters and handle overfitting.

The model pipeline included robust pre-processing techniques such as data aug- mentation that produced altered samples of the CXR and image enhancement that improved the visibility quality of the images. This paper is an extension and im- provement to the performance of the work in Section 3.4.

The model was published in Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Jour- nal

¹²

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12Mustapha Oloko-Oba and Serestina Viriri. “Ensemble of EfficientNets for the Diagnosis of Tuberculosis”. Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience, Vol. 2021,(2021). DOI:https:

//doi.org/10.1155/2021/9790894

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Research Article