Various studies have been done examining common denominators ofhealing systems across cultures (Frank, 1973; Tseng& McDermott, 1975), even though these common denominators are framed in culture-specific language and framework.
Psychological elements have been identified in other cultures outside Western ones (Roland, 1996;
Thorpe, 1993). There are widespread distribution of psychological features throughout the world.
Therapeutic explorations of any school of psychology are never far from family sphere. Emotional conflicts can include cultural and psychosocial factors. There is therefore no reason to exclude African traditional healing from being regarded as a form of psychotherapy.
African traditional healing and Western psychotherapies are different forms based on common principles of healing. The difference between the interpretations of African traditional healing and Western psychotherapies lies in the world views from which these approaches emerge and the ways in which they are controlled and utilized (Thorpe, 1993).
At the centre of African approaches to health, sickness and healing is the role played by ancestors or the dead-living. The beliefthat the dead-living play a role in the psychological health oftheir living
kin is intertwined with African world views which do not distinguish between the natural and supernatural causes. On the other hand, Western world views have been influenced by science and technology as well as factors such as urbanism, individualism and secularism. These approaches distinguish between physical, spiritual, mental, and socio-cultural factors in their diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems. Within Western-oriented psychological context criteria for judging the relevance of the phenomenon of the role of the dead-living in the present day African is lacking because often this phenomenon is relegated to religion, and therefore seen as inappropriate to psychological research and practice.
African traditional healing can be termed a psychological approach that connects current difficulties of a person with the spiritual. Studies of Roland (1996) and Thorpe (1993) show that Asians, Japanese and Indians also believe ancestors and the world of spirits play a rolein healing processes.
But studies ofBurkert (1987) and Von Franz (1995) show the belief to have existed during Pre- Christian era in the Near East, archaic Greece and ancient Rome. Whether the spirits of the dead- living or ancestors are part of the personal realm ofthe psyche projected outside or have an identity of their own, ifthey cause emotional stress they warrant to be dealt with in ways that are meaningful or congruent to the value system of the individual concerned. Addressing a problem of suffering from its own particular system is perceived by Thorpe (1993) as effective healing.
Literature further revealed that in African approaches to healing, symbolism in the form ofrituals and symbols play a very important role. Psychological health problems are viewed as symbolic expressions of disturbed relationships between the living and the dead-living or ancestors. Rituals for cleansing, atonement and forgiveness are performed to re-establish broken relationships. Such rituals are seldom known or appreciated in Western psychotherapies. The assumption in the African cultural context that ancestors or the dead-living reside also in a person's neck, back, sexual organs and shoulder blades presents a conflicting view from what Western psychotherapies often diagnose as somatization. This conflict calls for research into manifestations of the presence and role of the dead-livinginthe lives of their living kin.
The role of the dead-living is a subtle but important psychosocial aspect of the African culture.
Therapeutic exploration of this aspect can only enrich Western-oriented psychological context because traditions persist "even in vastly different pathologies and lengths of exposure to the West"
(Roland, 1996, p. 183). Even in highly sophisticated, modem settings of today there is a need for a spiritually-oriented psychotherapy (Thorpe, 1993).
Given the significant function of the role of the dead-living in the Mrican family system, can this phenomenon be incorporated in Western-based psychotherapies as a potential cause ofpsychological health problems and a strategy for treatment, or has this phenomenon no relevance whatsoever in the psychotherapeutic visions and goals of present schools of psychology?
According to Kleinrnan (1980), all available treatments that might be helpful should be tried. The purpose ofthis research study is to examine how theph~nomenonofthe role ofthe dead-livinginthe African family system still serves the purposes of life as a diagnostic medium and context of treatment in modem settings.
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
Anintroduction to methodology was provided in section 1.4 of chapter 1. This chapter aims to build on that introduction and to describe the procedures followed in selecting a research methodology and techniques for data collection and analysis. The chapter is organised around research methodology and design.
3.2 Research Methodology
According to Shipman (1997), theoretical models guide the selection of problems, procedures for collecting data, criteria for checking that the evidence is valid, and ways of analysing and presenting the results. Taylor and Bogdan (1998) support this statement when they say that different kinds of problems require different research methods. The aim of this research is to explore the phenomenon ofthe role ofthe dead-living in the African family system. The concept of role ofthe dead-living in the African family system is a rare and unexplored area for psychological inquiry.
Quantitative methodology would be unlikely to shed light on a problem of this nature since experiments would be unethical. The nature· ofthe problem under investigation calls for qualitative methodological strategies or techniques, because some variables involved in African concept ofthe dead-living cannot be manipulated (Kvale, 1998). Such variables can, however, be observed contextually in certain real-life settings such as family ritual ceremonies and be brought to the level of reflective awareness and critical evaluation. Qualitative methodology is deemed appropriate for this research study because it is context-sensitive (Taylor& Bogdan, 1998).