2.3 Theoretical Perspectives of the Study
2.3.1 Bio-Ecological Model
2.3.1.3 Context
The context or the environment includes four interrelated systems. According to Bronfenbrenner (1994), these systems conceptualise the environment from the individual’s perspective. Bronfenbrenner explained the context as “… as a set of nested structures, each inside the other like a set of Russian dolls. Moving from the innermost level to the outside”
(Bronfenbrenner, 1994, p. 39). The context consists of the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.
35 The Microsystem
The microsystem is defined as “a pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relationships experienced by developing persons in a given face-to-face setting with particular physical and material features, and containing other persons with distinctive characteristics of temperament, personality, and systems of belief” (Bronfenbrenner, 1989, p. 227). The settings comprise the family, neighbourhood, and school, among others. At this level, relationships have effect in two directions; the family may have an impact on the individual while at the same time, the individual may also have an impact on the family. In the case of the Kayayei, due to the low socioeconomic background of parents, investments are made in the son’s education, neglecting that of the daughters. As a result, most female children from these poor families have no better resort than to stop schooling and become school dropouts.
Besides, some of the female children must escape from outdated cultural practices such as female genital mutilation, forced marriages, and widowhood rites (Yeboah & Appiah Yeboah, 2009). Migration to the big cities, therefore, becomes the best and only survival option for these young women (Awumbila, Manuh, Quartey, Bosiakoh, & Tagoe, 2011). This observation agrees with various studies which have indicated that migration is a strategy for poor families to reduce the poverty burden because earnings from the destination will help improve household income (Awumbila, et al., 2014; Awumbila et. al. 2011; Kwankye &
Anarfi, 2011). Families will therefore encourage their young women and girls to migrate to Accra to engage in the business. Furthermore, young women are also influenced by their communities to emulate other peers in the decision to go to Accra. For example, when the young women stay in a neighbourhood where there are conversations about the prospects of Kayayei, these discussions might influence the decision to migrate and be a kayayo (the singular for Kayayei). The actions and inaction of peers and the school environment will also affect the decision to be a Kayayo. After they decide and migrate, they often find themselves in urban slums. They are prone to being abused by their patrons, which can become a contributing factor for physical and mental challenges (Virupaksha, Kumar, & Nirmala, 2014).
The Mesosystem
The mesosystem refers to how the microsystems relate to each other. Examples of these relationships are; the relationship between parents and neighbours, between teachers and parents. This means that the microsystems are being influenced and influence other systems within an individual’s cycle (Swart & Bredekamp, 2009). According to Awumbila et al. (2011), huge differences exist in the income and living standards of migrant and non-migrant families.
36 For instance, neighbours who have children who migrated to the south to engage in the Kayayei business and receive remittance from them may influence other families to send their children to also engage in the Kayayei business. The migration of these women and girls will now be widespread. Most households will begin to appreciate the importance of remittances from the Kayayei thereby encouraging other young women to also migrate (Awumbila et al., 2014).
These young women may be at higher risk of developing physical and mental health challenges.
This might occur when there is disruption of the micro- and messo systems, such as putting so much pressure on the young women to migrate. At the same time, they are not prepared mentally, thereby creating social disorientation, which can cause mental health issues (Lakhan
& Ekúndayò, 2013).
The Exosystem
The exosystem includes a specific social system that does not contain the individual and therefore do not play any role in the exosystem, the system can however have an impact on the individual’s immediate environment and microsystem by impacting his/her mood. (Lakhan &
Ekúndayò, 2013). Individuals do not have control over the system but are affected by it.
Parents' workplace-related challenges such as loss of employment have the possibility of disrupting family life, which will, in turn (in the case of the Kayayei) make the girl decide to go out and fend for herself and that of the family (Yeboah & Appiah Yeboah, 2009). In effect, due to the low household income of parents, they do not find it necessary to send their children to school, particularly the girl child, which might make her turn to other sources of employment.
Macrosystem
The Macrosystem is the broadest level of influence on the mental health of individuals, which includes global and societal influences (Bronfenbrenner, 1994), the beliefs system, customs, and laws. The effects of these principles defined by the macrosystem influence all the other layers (Paquette & Ryan, 2001). In the northern part of Ghana, cultural practices such as female genital mutilation exist, i.e., the ritual cutting or removal of the clitoris of young girls. Some of these young women, for fear of being subjected to the harmful practice, will migrate to the south to escape the procedure. Many of these young women end up in the Kayayei business (Opare, 2003). These Kayayei are mostly uneducated and are often abused by their patrons leading to psychological distress and other related health concerns (Opare, 2003). Lack of a legal framework or an institutional policy that protects workers in the informal sector exposes
37 these women to all kinds of abuse. Furthermore, government laws and policies have failed to address the persistent inequalities that exist in the informal sector in Ghana. Coupled with poor infrastructural development and lack of employment opportunities in northern Ghana compels these young women to migrant to the south where infrastructure is most developed in the search for employment opportunities, but due to lack of education, most of them find themselves in the Kayayei business (Asante & Gyimah Boadi, 2004; Opare, 2003).