EAL speakers in SLT caseloads
Process 1: Developmental issues
Developmental issues are the foundation for interpreting the communication behaviour of cultural or linguistic groups. These developmental issues have a bearing on the diagnosis and management of communication disorders. Adult –child interaction within a culture,
indigenous cognitive acquisition, language and communication acquisition and language and communication competence are the outcomes of this developmental process. Taylor outlines two levels of development i.e.
(a)Development within the indigenous culture (e.g. IsiZulu in this study)
During development, the child acquires the language and communication skills of the indigenous culture through interaction with Significant Others in the family and community.
Bronfenbrenner ‘s ecological model (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998 cited in Landsberg, 2005) discussed later in this chapter, in which parents and the community play a pivotal role in shaping the thoughts, perceptions and language used by the child (Gopaul-McNicol &
Armour-Thomas, 2002; Landsberg, 2005) is thus consistent with this conceptual framework.
The child from a Zulu sociocultural context acquires isiZulu language and communication Comment [p29]: earlier and below you use Zulu to refer to culture and isiZulu to refer to language
skills that reflect hlonipha (respect) to peers, siblings, family, relatives and community members (Elion & Strieman, 2001). Suzman (1991) reports that by 3 years the Zulu child uses adult-like language and has attained the communicative competence that is consistent with that of the adults in Zulu culture. They also learn the cognitive and linguistic behaviours that are deemed acceptable by the adults and the community. This process of socialization is mediated by language and other symbols (Barker, 2000; John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996; Mc Gowan, 2007). Language and communication rules are thus learnt within the context of this socialization and the child assimilates the norms that are set by the indigenous culture (De Houwer, 1990). Zulu children thus learn the cognitive and linguistic behaviours that are associated with Zulu tradition, customs, rituals and ceremonies.
Taylor (1986) explains that it would be impractical to expect that, with advances in
technology, the children would be confined to this indigenous culture. Children are often also exposed to other languages and cultures during these early developmental stages. The development of the second language (L2) however follows a different process from the first language (L1) development i.e. mother-tongue use, non-verbal stage, telegraphic stage and production of the language (Tabors, 2008). These stages will be discussed more extensively in chapter 7. The media plays a crucial part in this regard. The child can develop the L2 at the same time as the L1 (simultaneous bilingual), after the acquisition of the L1 (sequential bilingual) or understand the L2 but not actively use it expressively (passive bilingual) (Myers- Scotton, 2006).
School also plays a significant role in exposing the Zulu child to other languages and cultures especially in South Africa (De La Harpe, et al., 1998). Other media that expose the child to other languages and culture include radio, television, visual marketing e.g. billboards and cell phones, resulting in what Taylor describes as optional development of the external culture.
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(b) Optional development of the cultural, cognitive, language and communicative rules of an external culture (e.g. English in this study)
Children may also develop the cultural, cognitive, language and communicative rules of other cultures through exposure to media such as those described above. There are many factors that may influence whether this development occurs and the extent to which it occurs; these include social, political and psychological factors (Blance, 1994; Hamers & Blance, 2000).
Whether the Zulu child is in an urban or rural school, isiZulu or English medium school, the access of the family to different types of technology will influence the extent to which the child will understand and speak English and be comfortable with the behaviours associated with Western culture. The external cognitive and L2 development has been described by Taylor as optional as it may or may not occur. Despite the exposure to external cultural interaction, the child from an isiZulu language and cultural background may remain resistant to the adoption of Western practices and the English language due to dominance of their L1 in their context or negative associations with the L2 and culture. Although in their books they may see dogs and cats treated differently e.g. staying in the house, in their own home, they may hit a dog that tries to go into the house as it is unacceptable in their culture.
Despite the exposure to Western culture and English at school, the child’s development of this culture and language may not be on par with that of a child from a Western language and culture. The child from an isiZulu language and cultural background, who is in an English medium school, may understand English and be able to communicate in it but be more competent in isiZulu, their primary language. When assessed, the child’s interpretation of both the words and pictures presented may be from the perspective of the Zulu culture. For example, a picture of a female may be interpreted as a ‘mother’ if wearing a long dress or
‘girl’ if wearing a short dress. The interpretation is consistent with sociocultural expectations.
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The acquisition of the L2 and culture may be “ at varying levels of competence, the cognitive, linguistic and communicative systems of another culture, as a replacement for or addition to his indigenous culture or as a hybrid of the two” (Taylor, 1986, p. 12). This phenomenon is especially relevant in the South African multilingual and multicultural context where, through television and printed media, children are exposed to various languages and cultures. Here, English Western culture is the dominant or macro-culture, while their indigenous culture is the micro-culture. (Dusart & Liebenberg, 2003; Landsberg, 2005). In KwaZulu-Natal, most printed media that the children will be exposed to at school or elsewhere e.g. bill boards on the road or at the local stores, will be in English (Koopman, 2002).
The first issue raised by Taylor (1994) in this model under the developmental component is that the development of the exogenous language and culture is secondary to the development of the indigenous language and culture. In this study, the child participants are not English mother-tongue speakers but African EAL speakers who are from an isiZulu language and cultural background. English, for these participants, is the exogenous language referred to by Taylor. Their learning of English is thus secondary to the acquisition of their indigenous language and culture i.e. isiZulu. The primary language and culture therefore plays a significant role in their perception and interpretation of the world around them. This perception is reflected in their linguistic expression and comprehension. In an expressive language evaluation, for example, the language and culture of the indigenous language i.e.
isiZulu, is likely to be reflected. The SLT has to acknowledge and include the influence of this primary language and culture in the interpretation of the responses.
Secondly, the adult who is part of the family and community plays a pivotal role in the development of the child’s language and culture. The views and perceptions of the child who is an isiZulu mother-tongue speaker will thus be significantly influenced and shaped by the parents and community from which they come (Solarsh &Alant, 2006; Westby, 2009). These
perceptions will be reflected in their linguistic expression. When the researcher is unfamiliar with the relevant cultural practices of the group, it is crucial that individuals who are from the indigenous culture be consulted (Solarsh & Alant, 2006). Louw, cited in Bowen (2009), shows how the use of an asset based approach through the inclusion of household members (the asset) positively contributed to the assessment and management of a child from an indigenous language and cultural background. It was thus important that, in this research, parents and community were included to gain a better understanding of their influence and opinion in the responses that are provided by the children.