EAL speakers in SLT caseloads
Process 3: Assessment
9. Are there factors operating within the primary settings that can inhibit or promote performance on the competencies assessed?
3.9 ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN THE SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY PROFESSION
language of instruction, but the resultant undermining of the value of indigenous languages.
Current reports indicate that, at the preschools visited, there was a tendency to view English as a tool to ‘cure children’ of the mother–tongue .This attitude reinforces the hegemony of English (Li, 2006). These reports are consistent with the SLTs’ comments from the research survey findings (in chapter 2) which indicate that parents advise them that they want their children to learn and be assessed in English.
3.9 ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN THE SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY
demonstrated the differences between what is perceived as Standard English, South African English and Indian South African English. He further wrote a dictionary of Indian South African English where he demonstrated the link between Indian South African English and Indian culture (Mesthrie, 2010). The Indian culture and dialect is reflected in the semantic, syntactic and phonological responses in language assessments by Indian English mother- tongue speakers. The Renfrew Word Finding Scales, as with any other language assessment tool, needs to be linguistically and culturally relevant for the population on which it is used.
Miller (1994), Stow & Dodd, (2003) and Taylor, 1994) also stress the link between language and culture. Lemmer et al. (2006) argue, however, that culture is an intricate and often misunderstood phenomenon. Culture can be explicit and implicit (see figure 9).
Figure 9: Culture can be explicit ( visible) and implicit (hidden from view) (adapted fromLandsberg, 2005)
Language forms part of explicit culture. Acknowledgement of this link necessitates anti- essentialism and non-reductionism. Pillay (1997) argues that the act of SLTs administering these standardised English tests reflects the phenomena of reductionism, essentialism and
Comment [p57]: Should all of these be in brackets or is Miller cited in all of these?
You do not have a year for Miller
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othering. The other is reduced to an object (Durrheim , et al., 2011; Yancy, 2004);
essentialism is linked to reductionism (Pillay, 1997, 2001, 2003) as one also reduces a whole person to a core, fixed aspect. Othering is the sidelining of any aspect that may be perceived as falling outside the dominant or mainstream view; it predominantly uses differences in physical appearance and cultural expression (McKaiser, 2012; Muendane, 2006; Ramphele, 2008). The SLTs could thus be described as reducing their diverse clientele into a ‘neat’
group that fits Western English norms and ignoring any differences that are not associated with that which is outside this dominant group (Noyes, 2002). As indicated earlier, in South Africa the dominant or mainstream view is the Western view. As African EAL speakers coming from indigenous language and cultural backgrounds are not part of this dominant view, they are essentialized and devalued as the ‘other’. The SLTs thus engage in a dialectal enlightenment as their act is meant to add value to the client i.e. enlighten, but, due to the normative judgement used, it rather has the opposite effect (Farr, 2004).
Pillay (2003) thus coins the term ‘disothering’ as a challenge to SLTs to eliminate the ‘us’
and ‘them’ perception when engaging with the diverse population with whom they work.
There is a need for a dialectal transformation which involves the destruction of old oppressive ways of thinking and the birth of a new consciousness that reviews the application of
demeaning assumptions (Mugo, 1999; Wyrick, 1998). Practically, this new consciousness translates into an SLT who is open-minded, non-judgemental, flexible and aware of her socio- cultural environment (Awaad, 2003) and does not only depend on a Western framework to determine what is rational, civilised or normal (Haddour, 2006; Hoppers, 2002).
Baaz and Palmberg (2001) revisit the concept of ‘otherness’ from a slightly different perspective, arguing that the differences are often acknowledged but that the frame of reference used to define them is from the west, resulting in ‘normative sameness’ i.e.
homogenizing of a particular group of people (Fowler, 1995). When homogenizing, each individual’s experience is seen through the same lens. This constitutes a:
form of acculturation which is neither a complete reabsorption, whereby the dominant culture completely absorbs the weaker, nor an adoption or integration by
weaker elements in dominant culture but instead transculturation process i.e. creation of a mixed cultural order (Baaz & Palmberg, 2001, p. 13).
The real picture is that ‘the surface differences are as meaningful as human complexity’ (Baaz
& Palmberg, 2001, p. 12).The heterogeneity of EAL speakers is central to Threshold Theory (Baker, 1988) .
The Threshold Theory
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Figure 10: Diagrammatic representation of the Threshold Theory (Baker 1988)
Threshold theory, by Skutnabb-Kangas & Toukamaa (Baker, 1988) can be used to demonstrate the heterogeneous nature of the African EAL speaker from an indigenous
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language and cultural background. In the diagrammatic representation in figure 10, two ladders signify language competence or proficiency. Children stay high or low on the ladder depending on the number of steps climbed.
If they remain at the lower level, it can have potential negative cognitive effects, manifested in poor academic performance due to restricted linguistic skills.
If they reach the first threshold i.e. middle level, this indicates age-appropriate proficiency in one language.
If they reach the second threshold i.e. top level, it shows that they have age- appropriate proficiency in both languages.
This theory was originally developed to answer the question ‘to what extent does bilingualism affect cognitive development?’ Research linked to this theory has focused on this cognitive aspect (Preckel, Holling & Wiese, 2006; Ricciardelli, 1992). I, as the researcher however, believe that this theory highlights another important aspect regarding bilinguals i.e. the heterogeneous nature of bilinguals(Italy, 2006). This view is expressed in a paper presented at the Multilingualism Conference in Lithuania (Maine52, 2010). Bilinguals are often grouped together based on a traditional definition i.e. speaking two languages. Threshold Theory demonstrates that bilinguals have varying degrees of language competency.
Within the SLP profession, this is important information that is relevant for both assessment and the nature of intervention. It is crucial that the SLT realizes that the assessment may be reflecting that the bilingual is at a certain level of bilingual development and thus intervene accordingly. For example, if the findings indicate that the bilingual is proficient in the mother- tongue but not in the L2, stimulation rather than language therapy should be recommended, whereas, if the bilingual belongs to the lower threshold (i.e. lacks proficiency in L1 and L2) language therapy, rather than merely language stimulation is indicated.
52 Name formerly used , currently name changed to Mdlalo
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However, in reality, there are many factors that would influence the allocation of the bilingual to each of the different levels. These factors include the paucity of material and human resources. A bilingual who belongs to a certain level may thus be erroneously allocated to a wrong level, based on the tools used in language assessment, and managed accordingly. For example, in SA, an isiZulu L1 speaker may be assessed only in English, their L2 and not in their L1. Thereafter, they may be allocated to the lower level, as a child who presents with a language problem. An assessment on both the L1 and L2 however could have potentially revealed that they belong to the middle level as they lack proficiency in the L2 but not L1.
The allocation to the wrong level is likely to be used to make decisions about intervention.
Ethical and moral implications are raised by such a situation.
In South Africa, however, there is a growing awareness by mother-tongue African language speakers of their linguistic rights due to the establishment of permanent bodies such as the Pan–South African Language Body (PANSALB) and the Language Planning Task Group (LANGTAG).These bodies act as watchdogs on linguistic rights. The LANGTAG was formed in 1995 as a short term advisory committee to the Minister of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology. Its role was to advise the minister on planning ways that would assist in adhering to the language guidelines embedded in the SA constitution (Mesthrie, 2002).
The PANSALB, on the other hand, is a permanent body, appointed in April 1996, which acts as a language ombudsman guarding against the misuse of languages in a discriminatory, exploitative or oppressive manner (Alexander, 1997). Its decisions were based on submissions from numerous cultural, educational, political and language organizations (Mesthrie, 2002).
PANSALB’s terms of reference were based on parts of the constitution that dealt with language as a resource. The SLP profession is a communication discipline that uses studies and treats language as a resource for communication. As part of adhering to the constitution and linguistic rights, SLTs are thus faced with a challenge to respond to the preferences of
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parents of mother–tongue African Language speakers to use English in assessment and intervention but without contravening their cultural and linguistic rights. Any English-based language assessment tool that is used by SLTs should thus still produce accurate findings and be culturally and linguistically relevant.
The issue of using English without contravening the rights of speakers of other indigenous languages is very sensitive in South Africa and has been highlighted in a series of events and court cases, particularly in 2010. In a keynote address at the University of Stellenbosch, former President De Klerk, making specific reference to Afrikaans, warned against the promotion of certain languages in the country to the detriment of other indigenous languages (SABC, 2010). A court case that also highlights this issue is the ruling by Judge du Plessis in an application brought by Attorney Lourens which intended to compel the government to uphold the principles embedded in the constitution regarding the respect of all official languages in the country. Judge du Plessis found that the “national government had neglected its duty to regulate and monitor the use of official languages by means of legislative and other measures in terms of the constitution” (Venter, 2010, p.5). Swepu, the acting Chief Executive Officer of the PANSALB, complimented the ruling, commenting that it would help their board to fulfil their mandate to monitor government’s language policy and thereby ensure respect for all languages.
This study embraces the principles and values that PANSALB and LANGTAG strive for i.e.
linguistic and cultural respect for all. The aim of this study is thus to explore, critique the use of an English language screening instrument on EAL speakers and provide guidelines of how to adapt this instrument to be more linguistically and culturally relevant for this population.
Summary
In this chapter, the background to the assessment of EAL speakers, both locally and globally, was discussed. It included exploring the link between language and culture and the role of culture in language assessment. The Critical Theory was presented as an appropriate framework and lens for data analysis. Its key principles act as a supporting argument behind the core proposition of this study. Taylor’s cultural framework for the viewing of normal and pathological communication was used as the conceptual model applicable to this study .The principles of Taylor’s model were used as a basis for the research methodology that follows in chapter 4. A more in-depth explanation of the RAPT and its roles in the study was provided.
South Africa’s language and cultural reality was presented. There was a brief look at the SLT’s awareness, tests and change. As the SLT works with children who are part of the education system, policy language and education are explored. Finally the dominance of English, its impact on the SLP profession and the Threshold Theory was used to illustrate the heterogeneous nature of the children that form part of the SLP’s clientele.
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY