LITERATURE REVIEW
2.20 DIFFERENT TYPES OF FEMINISM
There are many diverse forms of feminism; however, some women activists’ discussions of a form of feminism which presents men as the enemy and rival has created fear in society both for women and for men and has resulted in a backlash (Aryan, 2012: 86). Women are criticised and called anti-men and labelled ‘feminists’ in a derogatory way by their colleagues (Koolaee, 2012: 141). Women are criticised by a number of women’s right activists within the women’s movements for being slow (Koolaee, 2012: 141). Feminists raised questions about the nature of the female condition, about women’s attitude to themselves and the social images imposed upon them, about men’s fear and hatred of women, and about the causes of women’s powerlessness and oppression (Carter, 1988: 174).
Lawrence (1970, cited in Jonasdottir, 1988, 1988: 170) quotation is at present crucial about men’s perspective about women in his words that:
‘Man is willing to accept woman as an equal, as a man in skirts, as an angel, a devil, a baby- face, a machine, an instrument, a bosom, a womb, a pair of legs, a servant, an encyclopedia, an ideal or an obscenity; the only thing he won’t accept her as is a human being, a real human being of the female sex.’
2.20.1 Liberal Feminism
Liberalism is the kind of feminism which believes that only the change of laws and social transformation could assist women to be treated equally. There is a belief that women are discriminated against based on their gender by modern societies (Jaggar, 1983). Nationality, individual independence, and self-realisation are important aspects of liberal feminism. These type of feminists try to address gender equality issues and focus on the characteristics that both sexes possess more than anything. Liberal feminists do not support women only but are gender neutral and they want to see individuals being able to express themselves freely in their own communities. According to Sarakakis, Rush, Grubb-Swetnam and Lane (2008), liberal feminists focus on the centrality of an ideal state that respects all its citizens, thereby granting and protecting equal rights and equal opportunities for women and men. Both men and women should be treated equally and enjoy equality of opportunities in order to achieve
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their potential as human beings. However, women are seen as not intelligent enough and have no strength physically which makes them to be barred from participating in most societal events and therefore not fully utilised.
Wilson and Thompson (2001: 65) remarked that men would be found in places where there is power and women in spaces where there is less or no power at all. On the contrary, Jonasdottir (1988:168) remarks that women are not completely incompetent; however they have no expertise and influence. He went on to explain that influence means power that can be there but not seriously or willingly considered. According to Wilson and Thompson (2001:
67) ‘power is exercised by controlling the agenda and mobilising biases in the system, thus determining which issues are important and which come into the decision-making arena’. In that way, those who are a threat to them can be ostracised (Lukes, 1986: 9).
Liberal feminists argue that both men and women should be given equal opportunities, access to education, and political rights. They want to see women being liberated and not oppressed based on their gender characteristics for example sexuality. There must not be a disregard of feelings when women are put into second gender class (Hanson, 2001: 553). The results of liberal feminism have been more opportunities for women participating politically and becoming economically dependent. Liberal feminists do not want anything new for women except for them to be treated equally and not discriminated against based on sex (Rosser, 2005: 2). The test is that with liberal feminism men values are regarded as common as these feminists do not challenge them. It is as if all women should try and behave like men in order to be accepted. Also, liberal feminism do not analyse any class of people or sexuality.
2.20.2 Marxist Feminism
Marxist feminism is influenced by the philosophies of Karl Marx and Engles as they look at feminism in the lens of class. Marxist feminism believes that capitalism has been the cause of women to be oppressed. Some Marxist feminists in their studies focused on class division and compared women’s work with their oppression and how they perceived themselves (Gimenez, 2005; Holmstrom, 1982); Jaggar, 1983; Malos, 1980; Young, 1980; Sarakakis et al, 2008). With Marxist feminism there is a belief that the means of production must be shared by all when capitalism as a system is replaced by socialism. Society plays an important role as class and status awareness determines the work that individual acquires. A woman begin by looking at her status in society which determines what job she might obtain
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and that she is expected to conceive and raise children than to generate income. Marxist feminists focus on women having financial freedom looking at their status in terms of work and self-esteem as women not as individuals. They see the capitalist system as favouring men and encourage women to depend on men. The flaws of Marxist feminism have been the confusion of different financial groups between men and women and to focus on other aspects of life other than work.
2.20.3 Cultural Feminism
Cultural feminism considers the importance of women’s existence or principle in any community. There are philosophy women and men’s essential characteristics and differences in emotions which single out women as exceptional. Cultural feminists, for example, Faderman (1981); Gilligan (1982) suggest that feminists here permit honesty, variety, and transformation when talking about women, considering how they speak and think. The fact that men and women are not the same biologically is important in considering the culture of women as they are responsible for reproduction. Women are regarded as caring and calmer which make feminists emphasise how essential women are in neutralising men. When women are involved there could be less fighting in different platforms and countries.
Cultural feminism aims to balance power between men and women as both parties have distinct qualities, behaviours, and experiences. There is a belief that women’s ways of doing things is better than men’s way in terms of culture.
2.20.4 Separatism Feminism
Separatism feminists do not support heterosexual relationships as they believe that sexual differences cannot be changed. Separatist feminism does not believe in the involvement of men on feminine issues as men enjoy being dominant. Separatists are often wrongly labelled as lesbians. This allows women to see themselves in a different environment. Most feminists believe that it is a good platform for a start and for personal growth. Conversely, women do not certainly recommend long-lasting separation as it can be unhealthy for both men and women.
2.20.5 Socialist Feminism
Social feminism does not separate individuals from the society they belong to (Bird and Brush, 2002; Prasad, Naidu, Ehrhardt, Winkel, Murthy, 2011). However, they explore at the
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life of women in their communities in isolation. Social feminists support the Marxist feminism’s dispute that women’s oppression is caused by the capitalist system. There is a belief that colonisation, racism and patriarchy are attached to each other and entangled. For women to be free, both the financial and cultural causes of women’s oppression must come to an end. Socialist feminism deals with issues of class, sex, race, ethnicity, nationality and sexual preference. According to Rosser (2005) capitalism and patriarchy are strengthening divisions in term of sex as far as work is concerned, at the same time ignoring the role played by women as child bearers. Socialist feminism is an inclusive way of creating social change.
Women like men, are created basically by different dimensions.
2.20.6 Radical Feminism
Radical feminism (Daly, 1973; Frye, 1983; Hoagland, 1988) focused on the way in which human relations in different communities are organised in relation to women’s oppression. It generally revolves around the beginning of female biology and regaining the true nature of women. Radical feminism is all about the roles of both men and women based on their biological characteristics. MacKinnon (1987) argues that it is difficult for women put forward their experiences, lives, and needs at the centre of their lives. Women meet in community groups to share their common goals and knowledge (Rosser, 2005). Based on this, it is their sexuality that separates them from men (Wilson and Thompson, 2001: 71).
Miriam (2007: 211) introduced the concept heterosexualism and refers to it as a joining of societal, political and cultural powers which give others a privilege and a sense of entitlement. She was referring to the amendment to ban gay marriages in the United States of America (USA) as well as young women who were having sex outside of marriage. This was based on seeing young female bodies in some kind of mass culture and media such as advertisement, cosmetics and fashion which is how sexual activity is understood (Miriam, 2007, 212). With the use of technology, female body parts have become commercialised.
Radical feminists encourage women to remove themselves emotionally and sexually from men in order to realise their full potential (Sarakakis et al, 2008).
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2.21 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AUTONOMOUS FEMINISTS AND