LITERATURE REVIEW
2.25 WOMEN’S WING OF A POLITICAL PARTY
The role of women’s sections inside major political parties has also been pointed out as a means of fostering more competitive and transparent recruitment and nomination processes (Saxonberg, 2000). Women have been relegated to a feminised and marginalised ‘women’s wing’ within political parties (Goetz and Hassim, 2003: 10). The women’s wings are so crippled by party control that in Zambia one woman parliamentarian remarked that the women’s wings should be abolished since ‘they are the biggest obstacle to women’s political participation’ (Ferguson, Ludwig, Katundu and Manda, 1995). On the contrary, women’s organisations in the parties play an important role in mobilising women candidates and support for them once nominated (Lovenduski, 2002: 75).
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2.25.1 Challenges faced by Women in Politics
In the 1920’s lack of information and training was seen as a challenge to women’s equal participation in politics (McGlen and O’Connor, 1998: 69). Women’s lower psychological involvement in politics appears to be closely associated with levels of political information (McGlen and O’Connor, 1998: 66).
The parties often do little to prepare women for office, and provide little support for them once elected (Sales, 1997: 177). One woman official said-
‘I don’t know if I will stand again. There are so many meetings. It takes up a lot of time, and I have three children.’ ‘I wasn’t expecting to win. I don’t speak a lot in the council; I don’t have a lot of confidence. I did not have any training, but they are talking about doing it now’
(Sales, 1997: 177).
‘They don’t have enough confidence in themselves. At one of the meetings one woman said
“I’m just a councillor.” Could you imagine a man saying that? She was the only woman on her council.’ She continues to claim that men are sympathetic to women’s greater involvement but ‘you have to show them that you are not a threat.’ (Sales, 1997: 174).
Almost all opponents of the presence of women at high levels of executive power refer to women’s weakness and inability to perform heavy responsibilities due to their strong emotions, in particular during menstruation, pregnancy, breastfeeding and childcare (Kadivar, 2012: 133). Women’s lack of access to financial resources meant that many women were unable to campaign and stand as candidates for the municipal, local and parliamentary seats (Koolaee, 2012: 140). Women have suffered a lot financially during elections due to lack of support for women candidates who are normally enjoyed by their male counterparts who could raise money through their networks in electoral campaigns (Franceschet, 2005: 89).
Another type of barrier that women face derives from cultural and informal practices which tend to keep women in the private domain rather than the public field of politics (Franceschet, 2005: 90).
According to Aryan (2012: 38) ‘obtaining higher education and receiving training, skills and expertise have increased women’s awareness, their self-confidence, dignity, growth and development’. Educated women feel more independent and are confident to secure key roles in socio-economic and political positions (Aryan, 2012: 48). Once elected, women often find
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the practical difficulties of council work overwhelming (Sales, 1997: 177). Once elected, women face a variety of reactions from male colleagues (Sales, 1997: 178).
Many women who participate in electoral politics suggest that political parties themselves are an important barrier to increasing the number of women in politics (Franceschet, 2005: 1).
The politicking, dirty manoeuvring, manipulation and squabbling that goes ion in most political parties has disgusted most women and they invariably withdraw from party politics (Martin, 1993: 4). While political parties are now more willing to have women on their slates;
women are often regarded by male councillors with suspicion, particularly if they show any ambition, or independence from the party line (Sales, 1997: 176). McGlen and O’Connor (1998: 80) remarked that it is women who are responsible for failing to turn things around when it comes to their increased participation in politics.
Men regard the holding of high positions as their exclusive right and are not prepared to share these with women (Aryan, 2012: 86). Even those that have managed to remove many barriers and have occupied high positions do not express their capabilities fully (Aryan, 2012: 86).
Women who break into leadership positions, moreover, usually have to fight male resistance to get there (McGlen and O’Connor, 1998: 89).
Interviews which were conducted in 1998, with women, revealed their lack of self-confidence about political matters (McGlen and O’Connor, 1998: 66). Once elected, most women develop the degree of confidence and self-esteem to express their point of view (Martin, 1993: 8). Snaevarr, an Iceland Ambassador to Latvia, Estonia, Sweden and Finland argued that ‘it is out-dated to be in a position representing women by way of a female quota and to think that this is somehow justifiable. According to Snaevarr (1993: 15) ‘women are going to get the positions for which they demonstrate the best talent, but that will require self- confidence’.
Many citizens still see politics as ‘dirty’ or ‘corrupt’ and reject the idea of an active political role for women in party affairs and campaigns (McGlen and O’Connor, 1998: 77). The idea that women’s nature, their strong sensitivity, emotionality and weakness of wisdom and reasoning; does not allow them to be fit for positions of leadership and governance (Kadivar, 2012: 132). Those women who do want to compete for candidacies or leadership posts in the parties often face gender-based discrimination (Franceschet, 2005: 92). Women have limited
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access to financial resources and there are enormous obstacles placed on their path by the family, education system, media and the civil law, customary and shariah (Aryan, 2012: 84).
Valdes (1998) argues that the parties of the centre and left have also failed to support their female candidates financially.
Women often come to politics later in life due to childbearing demands (McGlen and O’Connor, 1998: 88). Some women would have a guilty conscious when they do not spend enough time with their families (Franceschet, 2005: 90). There is a need to challenge the idea that a home is where women belong and argue that she is a human being but with different capabilities and needs to men (Koolaee, 2012: 141). Many women constantly challenge patriarchal gender relations and despite all the barriers, women are systematically struggling for change (Aryan, 2012: 87). Sometimes the way women speak and their conduct does not work in their favour, which results in them not seen as participant in meeting and therefore unable to air their views (Franceschet, 2005: 91). Dandavati (2005: 26) warns that women should not choose to be discriminated and humiliated in political spaces and should not relinquish the power they have at home by changing their interests. Women are more likely to live under a lot of poverty compared to their male counterparts (Lovenduski, 2002: 22).
Most political parties have not been in favour of the adoption of tools which would increase the number of women candidates to contest positions using gender quotas (Franceschet, 2005: 85). The electoral system shapes candidate selection in a way that disadvantages women (Franceschet, 2005: 85). A second way in which parties are a barrier to women involves the cultural practices and dynamics in a traditionally male-dominated environment (Franceschet, 2005: 85/6). Thirdly, political parties continue to monopolise formal politics, undermining any attempts by women who want to participate in the political process independently of partisan organisation (Franceschet, 2005: 86).