In a study in 2008 by Waxman et al, results indicated that the amount and quality of teacher and student academic interaction were two of the most influential variables that promoted student outcomes. Researchers suggested teacher practices that promoted resiliency in schools included using feedback from classroom observation and learning environment measures, employing explicit teaching practices; and understanding students on a social and personal level.
In exploring educators’ enhancement of educational resilience, some researchers began with a key underlying premise that educational resilience can be “fostered through interventions that enhance children's learning, develop their talents and competencies, and protect or buffer them against environmental adversities” (Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J., 1997). Based on results of meta-analyses, authoritative review articles, and a survey of educational researchers, it was established that “a teacher’s concern, high expectation and role modeling were key protective factors against the likelihood of academic failure, particularly for students in difficult life circumstances”. It was felt that teachers not only provided institutional support for
xlviii academic content and skills, but served as confidants and positive role models for children to develop the values and attitudes needed to persevere in their schoolwork by “encouraging students to master new experiences, believe in their own efficacy, and take responsibility for their own learning”.
Contextual influences in classroom management and climate or quality of instruction were seen to affect learners’ day-to-day activities (Wang et al, 1997). These included “maximising learning time, setting high expectations for all students, providing ample opportunities for student/teacher interaction, maintaining a high degree of classroom engagement, tailoring instruction to meet the needs of individual students, engaging students in setting goals and making learning decisions, and participating in group learning activities”. Well-organized lessons with clear learning objectives that led to student satisfaction were considered significant to outcomes.
2.12.1 International Studies on Models for Enhancing Resilience
The American Psychological Association embarked on a collaborative to investigate the effect of
“learning the ‘Other 3Rs’ on student academic achievement and life skills” (McDonnell J. S., 2005). Findings were that teachers attending the ‘Other 3Rs’ training in comparison to standard teachers’ training expressed greater perceived self-efficacy in their ability to influence children’s learning, had greater confidence in their ability to help children use reasoning skills to become more resilient learners and more socially responsible and had greater beliefs that resilience could be taught.
Martin (2002) recommended a model of motivation to enhance resilience because it could be used by educators and counselors, understood by learners and located in the classroom. This model was seen as desirable for students not only to be motivated to “achieve to their potential but also better prepared to deal with academic setback and pressure from a resilience perspective”. Underachievers, disruptive learners, ethnic minorities and the academically disadvantaged could all benefit from this focus. Students who had little interest in learning, anxious students, students constantly fearful of failure and even highly motivated students who needed to be sustained appeared to benefit. A greater sense of self-belief and perceived control would anchor the development of motivated behaviour in the forms of persistence, planning and study management.
xlix 2.12.2 Classroom intervention programs
School-based cognitive behavioural programs have been shown to be effective in enhancing psychological health and resilience (Bin Arrifin, 2010). One such program was developed by the University of Pennsylvania for use in other countries. An exploratory study using the Penn Resiliency Program was conducted in Singapore focusing on the link between optimism and academic gains. Results indicated that children in the intervention group had fared significantly better than controls in terms of resilience scores and academic attainments. Similar outcomes were obtained from a re-run of the program on another 30 children the following year, selected from 124 children within the lowest resilience baseline band, providing preliminary evidence for replication of program effectiveness.
Bondy, Ross, Gallingane, et al (2007) explored classroom management in schools with a diverse student population by describing the practices used by three effective novice teachers in urban elementary classrooms. The teachers focused on “developing relationships and establishing expectations through the use of "insistence" and a culturally responsive communication style”.
The authors provided clear pictures of the ways in which teachers could teach in a culturally diverse environment by insisting on respectful behaviour and establishing a caring, task-focused learner community and demonstrated how teachers could create environments resilience for students who have been historically disadvantaged.
‘Affective teaching’ was compared to ‘cognitive teaching’ by Shechtman and Leichtentritt (2004) in a study in classrooms in Israel. Data was collected based on lesson observations, equally divided into the two types of instruction. Results indicated a lower frequency of misbehaviour in the affective lessons compared with the cognitive lessons. This included not completing tasks, talking without permission, moving without permission and aggression.
Positive behaviours that included expression of thoughts, expression of feelings, self-awareness and peer support were more frequent in the affective lessons compared with cognitive lessons.
Henley, Schweier, de Gara et al (2007) undertook a review of theories and practices pertaining to the dynamics of resilience and sport and play programs, established to help children and youth experiencing adversity in their lives. Sport and play activities, inclusive of any organized movement, exercise, game or artistic activities were seen to have a stabilizing impact on most
l children through supporting and encouraging their resilience processes. Although psychosocial sports and play programs are a relatively new approach to helping children manage adversity, the authors felt that more field investigations needed to be implemented to establish best practices methodology and to discover the impact on the enhancement of children’s resilience.