Resilience research show that a number of constructs exist that relate to educational resilience;
these are discussed and researched regularly to prove their impact on the presence of resilience in a child. Risk and adversity, protective and vulnerability factors, stress and coping are constructs that are synonymous with resilience (Normand, 2007, p. 31).
2.7.1 Risk Factors
The term risk originated in epidemiology; risks are ‘any influences that increase the probability’
of deterioration to a more serious state or ‘maintenance of a problem condition’ (Greene, 2002, p. 32). Masten (2001) explains risk factors as those characteristics thought to present children with a higher probability of an undesirable outcome like dropping out of school. Compas (1995) cited in Normand (2007) felt that risk factors do not help to explain why problems develop but simply point that they may. A common characteristic however is the chronicity which is often beyond the child’s control, tends to be interconnected and causes the child to grow up with multiple interconnected life hazards (Normand, 2007), p. 31). Ahmed et al (2004) cited in Moleli (2005) refers to risk factors as those elements that are not conducive to the development of a resilient learner. Research studies that explored the attributes of children these ‘at- risk’
children found non-resilient children to be withdrawn or aggressive; further, these vulnerable children behaved in ways which led them to be rejected by their peers (Greene, D., Oswald, M.,
& Spears, B., 2007). Boon (2008) described non-resilient children as experiencing emotional difficulties like anxiety, phobias, depression, loneliness and fearfulness. The internalizing of problems displayed by non-resilient learners may cause them to withdraw from participation in school activities which in turn may lead to absenteeism (Boon, 2008, p. 85).
For one to understand educational resilience, it is important to understand the processes and mechanisms by which vulnerable children successfully navigate risk situations. Rutter (1988) and Doll and Lyon (1998) cited in Normand (2007) suggested that both risk and resilience factors are evaluated within their context. Researchers have shown that the influence of a caring
xxxix teacher with high expectations and a positive classroom climate can play a key role in enhancing resilience in vulnerable learners (Greene et al, 2007, p. 135).
2.7.2 Adversity
Luthar e, (2000) refer to adversity as being linked to risk, encompassing of negative life circumstances and associated with adjustment difficulties. Hall and Pearson (2003) stated that research on risk and adversity reveals that adversity can help or hinder a resilient reaction to life’s inevitable challenge. They further stated that as families today are exposed to daily stressors many children are exposed to high levels of childhood stress. Children with adversity are likely to be identified as being ‘at-risk’ of having subsequent learning problems. Adversity can be decreased however, by improving learners’ attributes in their school environment. In an attempt to decrease the effects of adverse circumstances and build resilience, researchers have identified a number of ‘protective factors’ that promote development (Russo and Boman, 2007, p.17).
2.7.3 Stress and Coping
Stress and coping are two important concepts in understanding educational resilience. Leiderman (1998) cited in Normand (2007) felt that stress and coping explain a reaction to threatening events, both internally and externally. Psychological change and social adaptation are keys to the being able to cope with stress. The stress and coping paradigm refers to living in and interacting within an environment in which multiple rather that single factors are brought to bear. Coping mechanisms may include an attempt to alter threatening conditions themselves by directly changing an appraisal of conditions so that they do not feel the threat. It is also evident that some coping processes may increase the risk of maladjustment while others may improve adaptation and reduce the risk of a negative outcome (Normand, 2007, p. 34). Rutter (2002) felt that relationships play an important role in stressful event because much of the stressful quality of an event lies in its effects on families and social interactions.
2.7.4 Protective Factors
xl Protective factors contribute to educational resilience. Masten (2001) stated that the term protective factor generally describes the circumstances that moderate the effects of risk by reducing the effects of stress and enhancing adaptation. Protective factors act as a buffer, interrupting or even preventing risk. Rutter (2001) cited in Normand (2007, p. 32) defines these factors as those attributes of the person, environments, situations and events that temper predictions of psychopathology based upon vulnerability. Ungar (2003) commented that protective factors provide resistance to risk and foster positive outcomes He focused on the importance of social networks and close personal relationships as being protective. To fully understand educational resilience Ungar (2003) believed that external protective factors like a good school, caring educators, secure attachment to caregivers and their meaningful participation in the child’s academic life should be explored as well as the internal resources of the resilient child which include self-efficacy, self-esteem, problem solving and good communication. Other internal assets which may be intrinsic, inherited or generated include biological and psychological factors like the resilient child’s health, temperament, gender, intellectual capacity, social capacity and sense of purpose (Russo and Boman, 2007). Greene (2002) commented that a personal disposition, a supportive family and extra-familial social environment can modify stress and alter or even reverse potential negative outcomes. A caring relationship that conveys compassion, understanding, respect and interest grounded in good listening that establishes safety and basic trust can make a difference (Bernard, 2004). According to Russo and Boman (2007) the educator can develop these protective factors through their interaction with learners.
In this study the educator’s ability to enhance resilience is explored as the external mechanism of influence. International literature on resilience studies indicates that educators can foster resilience to improve outcome in vulnerable learners (Greene et al, 2007, p 134). Rutter (2002) emphasized that in general, protective factors allows for learners to become less vulnerable and hence more resilient. Masten and Reed (2002) found that the best documented asset for reliance is a strong bond to a competent and caring adult, which need not be a parent. In the case of non- resilient learners, it is possible that the educator is that competent and caring adult.
2.7.5 Vulnerability Factors
To conceptualize educational resilience it is important to understand what a vulnerability factor means and how it relates to learners. The term vulnerability according to Masten (2001) refers to
xli the greater likelihood of developing an undesirable outcome. Although researchers use the term vulnerability and protective interchangeably Luthar et al (2000), the interplay between risk factors and a child’s strengths and weaknesses does correlate with the amount of vulnerability or resilience a child experiences (Normand, 2007, p. 33). In order for educators to decrease this vulnerability in learners due to negative life experiences, they need to support non-resilient, maladaptive learners.