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22 Figure 5: Un-electrified rural areas in 2017
Source: Hughes et al. (2017)
Lack of coordination and resources, the absence of clearly defined strategies and multiple approaches to the energy access problem hinder the success of energy access efforts in South Africa. Perspectives on the best energy access approach differ across stakeholders involved in the energy access programmes in the country. For political expediency, policymakers generally favour electrification.
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23 Electricity expenditure is positively correlated with total household and per capita income (Shackleton et al., 2006). The same direct relationship and greater reliance on firewood for meeting energy needs by low-income families were observed across Sub-Saharan Africa (Adkins et al., 2012); Zimbabwe (Vermeulen et al., 2000), Southern and Eastern Africa (Gielink, 1991; Davis, 1998; Matsika et al., 2013), Rwanda (Ndayambaje, 2013), Ireland (Healy and Clinch, 2001), West Africa (Johnson and Bryden, 2012) and in Mozambique (Cuvilas et al., 2010).
Energy sources for cooking across the country
Further analysis of energy sources for cooking across the country shows that the numbers vary by province and type of dwelling of households (Stats SA, 2019). The use of grid electricity for cooking is higher in the Northern Cape (circa 86 per cent), followed by the Free State (84 per cent) and the Western Cape (81 per cent).
The use of grid electricity is lower in the more rural provinces of Limpopo, North-West, Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga. For instance, grid electricity used for cooking in the Limpopo province accounts for approximately 60 per cent. In comparison, it is 69 per cent in Mpumalanga, the Eastern Cape, and the North-West Province.
Again, data analysis at the provincial level fails to provide a clearer picture. Figure 65 shows the distribution of households by energy source by province for cooking according to data extracted from the 2018 GHS published by Stats SA.
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24 Figure 6: Distribution of households by energy source for cooking by province, 2018
Source: Stats SA (2019)
The use of kerosene in the country is most common in the Eastern Cape, where approximately seven per cent of households and least common in Limpopo, the Western Cape and the Northern Cape, roughly one per cent. The low use of electricity for cooking in Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces is primarily attributed to the easy accessibility and affordability of alternative fuel sources such as firewood. In the Limpopo province, almost 32 per cent of households use firewood for cooking (Stats SA, 2019).
Similarly, in Mpumalanga, firewood accounts for approximately 16 per cent of household energy used for cooking. The figure is ten and eight per cent in KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces, respectively. The use of firewood is lowest (less than one per cent) in the Western Cape and the Gauteng provinces. The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is most prevalent in the Western Cape, Northern Cape and the Free State provinces. According to Stats SA, the penetration rate remains low, less than eight per cent per year. (Stats SA, 2019).
Primary source of energy for cooking by dwelling type
The use of firewood and kerosene for cooking in traditional rural and informal urban dwellings is relatively high, according to Stats SA (Stats SA, 2019). In these homes, closer scrutiny of the statistics reveals that over 40 per cent of households in traditional dwellings relies on conventional biomass energy, mainly firewood and cow dung, for cooking. This figure accounts for over one million homes (Stats SA, 2019).
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Western Cape Northern Cape KwaZulu Natal Gauteng Limpopo
Electricity from mains Other source of electricity, eg generator
Gas Paraffin
Wood Coal
Candles Animal dung
Solar energy Other
None
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25 In the informal urban dwellings, kerosene for cooking accounts for over 30 per cent and approximately seven per cent in traditional houses (Stats SA, 2019). Many electrified and non- electrified low-income households use kerosene because of its affordability, portability and availability. The 2018 GHS statistics confirm the argument that energy consumption levels in the informal urban areas mirror rural energy consumption patterns as claimed by Nabudere (2006) over a decade earlier. Figure 7 presents a summary of household energy consumption patterns for cooking.
Figure 7: Source of energy for cooking by dwelling type, 2018
Source: Stats SA (2019)
The 2018 Stats SA statistical results presented in Figure 7 are divergent from policymakers’
expectations. These results corroborate empirical investigation findings which show that the consumption of electricity for cooking has remained low among low-income families even with the introduction of electricity (Davis, 1998; Thom, 2000; Prasad and Ranninger, 2003;
Madubansi and Shackleton, 2006; Chirwa et al., 2010; Matsika et al. 2013). Prasad and Ranninger (2003) reported that 56 per cent of electrified rural homes consumed less than 50 kWh per month in 2000 against an anticipated consumption level of 350 kWh per month.
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Dwelling/house or brick/concrete block structure on a…
Traditional dwelling/hut/structure made of traditional…
Flat or apartment in a block of flats Cluster house in complex Town house (semi-detached house in complex) Semi-detached house Dwelling/house/flat/room in backyard Informal dwelling/shack in backyard Informal dwelling/shack not in backyard Room/flatlet on a property or a larger dwelling servant…
Caravan/tent Other
Grid electricity Electricity from generator Gas Paraffin
Wood Coal Candles Animal dung
Solar energy Other None
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26 2.4 Heating primary sources of energy
Energy for heating takes two forms, water and space heating. Space heating constitutes the bulk of energy consumption for heating and is highest during winter. Historically, firewood, cow dung and kerosene contributed the most considerable portion of energy for heating by rural households. In informal urban settlements, kerosene and braziers (mbawula) are the most common energy source for heating. The uptake of solar geysers is slowly increasing on the back of strong government support in the past decade and the falling solar technology prices.
As shown in Figure 8, across the country, electricity for heating accounts for approximately 34 per cent, followed by firewood, which accounts for 10 per cent. Interestingly, roughly 42 per cent of households do not use any form of energy for heating. This phenomenon is mainly because South Africa is generally warmer throughout the year and cold only in winter. Even the winters are not as severe.
Household energy sources for heating across the country vary by province and type of dwelling of households (Stats SA, 2019). The use of grid-connected electricity for heating is highest in the Gauteng Province (50 per cent), followed by the Northern Cape (43 per cent) and the Mpumalanga Province (37 per cent). However, the use of electricity for heating is slowly being overtaken by LPG. LPG is cheaper and more reliable than power.
The use of electricity connected to the mains is lowest in Limpopo, Western Cape, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal and the North-West Provinces. For instance, grid electricity for heating in the Eastern Cape Province accounts for a meagre 13 per cent. In comparison, it is 27 per cent in Limpopo, KwaZulu Natal, the Western Cape and the North-West provinces.
Once more, data analysis at the provincial level does not provide an accurate picture of the household consumption patterns, as shall be seen later in the discussion. Figure 8 summarises of the provincial distribution of energy sources for heating according to the 2018 GHS data (Stats SA, 2019).
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27 Figure 8: Distribution of energy source for heating by province, 2018
Source: Stats SA (2019)
In Eastern Cape and the Free State province, approximately 19 per cent of families rely on kerosene for meeting heating needs, and 10 per cent of households in the Western Cape make use of kerosene for heating. The high consumption of kerosene in the Eastern Cape, Western Cape and Free State provinces is attributed to the affordability of kerosene and the government's essential electricity augmentation interventions.
Data gleaned from the 2018 GHS data also showed high levels of firewood usage in the so- called rural provinces of South Africa, namely, KwaZulu Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga and the Northern Cape (Stats SA, 2019). In these provinces, firewood accounts for approximately 19 per cent of energy for heating (Stats SA, 2019). Again, the low use of electricity for heating in Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces is attributed to firewood's easy availability and affordability. The use of fuelwood for heating is prevalent in Limpopo and the Eastern Cape Provinces, with more than 21 per cent of households estimated to be using firewood for heating (Stats SA, 2019).
Similarly, in Mpumalanga, firewood accounts for approximately 16 per cent of household energy used for heating and 17 per cent in the Northern Cape province. The use of firewood for heating is not very common in the Gauteng, the Western Cape and the North-West
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Western Cape Eastern Cape Northern Cape Free State KwaZulu Natal North West Gauteng Mpumalanga Limpopo South Africa
Electricity from mains Electricity from generator Gas
Paraffin Wood Coal
Candles Animal dung Solar energy
Other None
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28 provinces. In these provinces, firewood accounts for less than 10 per cent of the heating energy mix. The low reliance on firewood in these provinces is attributed to the cost of firewood. The use of LPG for heating is widespread in Western Cape, Gauteng and the Free State provinces.
Primary source of energy and dwelling type
Energy consumption for heating differs considerably depending on the type of dwelling. Grid electricity consumption is high in homes located in areas such as town and cluster houses, flats and caravan/tents (Stats SA, 2019). In these dwellings, grid electricity accounts for over 63 per cent of the energy used for heating. In contrast, grid electricity accounts for approximately eight per cent of heating energy requirements in traditional dwellings and roughly 16 per cent in informal homes.
The use of firewood for heating is high in traditional dwellings accounting for over 58 per cent of energy requirements for heating. In informal urban dwellings, over 13 per cent of households rely on firewood for heating. Over nine per cent of households in traditional houses and informal dwellings rely on kerosene for heating (Stats SA, 2019). The high use of kerosene in informal dwellings is attributed its affordability. Figure 9 presents a summary of household energy consumption patterns for meeting heating requirements.
Figure 9: Primary source of energy for heating and dwelling type, 2018
Source: Stats SA (2019)
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Dwelling/house or brick/concrete block structure on a…
Traditional dwelling/hut/structure made of traditional…
Flat or apartment in a block of flats Cluster house in complex Town house (semi-detached house in complex) Semi-detached house Dwelling/house/flat/room in backyard Informal dwelling/shack in backyard Informal dwelling/shack not in backyard Room/flatlet on a property or a larger dwelling servant…
Caravan/tent Other
Grid electricity Electricity from generator Gas Paraffin
Wood Coal Candles Animal dung
Solar energy Other None
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29 It is clear from the discussion thus far that central grid electricity consumption for heating purposes has evolved. It is projected that the use of firewood for heating will remain high in traditional and informal dwellings (Shackleton et al., 2007). Based on observed historic trends, the use of kerosene is expected to decrease over time. The emergence of solar geysers supported by government incentives and the rise of LPG as feasible alternatives to electricity and firewood for heating is expected to significantly alter the energy industry dynamics.