3.2 The theory of overlapping spheres 50
3.2.1 Epstein’s typology of parental involvement 53
Epstein et al. (1997) allude to six major types of involvement that fall within the overlapping spheres that have evolved from many studies and the work of educators in schools. However, Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009, p. 34) advise that “…effective programmes of parental involvement will look different in each school. Each individual school will develop programmes of parent involvement to meet the needs and interests, time and aptitudes, ages and grade levels of learner and their families.”
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The different areas where parents could be involved are described as follows:
3. 2.1.1 Parenting
Epstein’s model (1995) describes parenting as the help given to families by the school in order to establish a home environment that supports children as learners at all ages and grade levels.
Desforges and Aboucher (2003, p. 33) advise that “educators need to be aware that good enthusiastic parenting can be found amongst mothers of all social classes and ethnic backgrounds, and where it is not found, it could be taught.” Lemmer and Van Wyk (2009) advise that schools provide information about parenting to all families and not just to the few that may attend a workshop at the school.
Meier et al. (2006, p. 139) advise that “schools should consider parents as well as their home circumstance when they plan ways of assisting parents and getting information from them regarding their children. When the school provides support to families, parents develop skills and confidence and support their children as they proceed through school.” In the rural context where schools have inadequate resources, it would advantage the school to invest in skilling parenting to provide support. However, for any success to be achieved, effective communication between the school, parents and community should prevail.
3.2.1.2 Communication
Meier et al. (2006) advise that educators need to learn about parents’ social, cultural and educational background so that they can communicate sensitively with them. The communication should include aspects such as information on school programmes and children’s progress, and should allow for feedback from the parents. “It should also be kept in mind that parents’ language difficulties could result in them not understanding the participation opportunities given to them, which often leads to educators labelling such parents as uninterested” (Van Wyk, p. 2010).
Lemmer and Van Wyk (2009) posit that good communication includes, among others, meeting with parents to suggest ways to improve grades, sending learners’ home with work for parents to review, regular delivery of notices about extramural activities, clear communication of school policies and regulations and delivering report cards.
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Good communication means that parents will grasp school policies and rules, share important information about learners with educators, and both parents and learners will have an understanding of their academic progress and the steps needed to improve their grades.
Educators will develop an appreciation for the parents’ contribution to the development of the child and the parents’ knowledge of the child will increase by their supporting the school as volunteers.
3.2.1.3 Volunteering
Wolhutter et al. (2012, p. 61) describe volunteering in the educational context as “…anyone assisting with children’s learning or development in any way, at any time and place.” They advise that “flexible schedules should be made for volunteers, allowing those who work to participate.” Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009, p. 26) advise that volunteering “includes the design of a programme in which parent volunteers and recruited, trained and organized for a variety of activities aimed at meeting the needs of the school.”
Meier et al. (2006) advise that, to get a strong volunteering programme on its feet, schools should recruit parent volunteers widely so that all families know that their talents are useful and appreciated. Schools should make the programmes for volunteers flexible so that working parents can also participate. They should also organize and coordinate volunteer work and provide training for the parents so that these volunteering programmes are productive.
As parents become more familiar with school routines and gain a better understanding of teachers’ tasks, they will become more at ease on the school premises. As they gain skills, they will develop self-confidence and participate in more formal educational programmes. Teachers can gain much from the presence of volunteers. They could be relieved from routine tasks to give quality time to children’s learning, build a one-on one relationship with parents, and become aware of strengths and talents of individual parents.
3.2.1.4 Learning at home
Clarke (2008) concurs with Van der Westhuizen (2002) when he argues that “...communities value education and parents can make a significant contribution in supporting the school if properly guided and welcomed. Schools function best when parents and other members of the
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community feel a sense of belonging and ownership of the school and its activities,” (Clarke 2007, p. 174). Schools therefore need to provide parents with information and ideas about how to help children at home with homework and other curriculum-related activities, decisions and planning.
Berger (1987, p. 103) shares Long’s (1986) view, stating that “parents are already involved as the primary educators of their children before school or nursery, and it makes sense to continue and utilize this involvement in the early years of formal education. By extending the context of learning beyond the confines of the classroom and the school, the child finds a wider range of constructive learning situations.” Learning at home therefore supplements work that starts in the classroom
Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009, p. 27) argue that when parents are actively involved in the teaching and learning process, the ill-discipline around homework issues is reduced and learner progress is enhanced when children regularly practise routine skills (such as spelling, reading and mathematical principles) at home. However, the involvement of parents in school matters is most effective when parents have participated in plenary activities and taken decisions collectively.
3.2.1.5 Decision making
Van Deventer (2008) posits that participative decision making can result in more effective functioning of the school and education. By involving more people in the decision making process, more expertise and knowledge are made available and this results in decisions of a high quality. Training should be offered to parents who are inexperienced in management and leadership so that they too can aspire to positions of leadership. Van Deventer (2008, p. 225) advises that an “important step in the decision making process is obtaining information (facts, feelings and alternative solutions) on which to base the best decision. Information is not an end in itself – it is a means to provide support for the decision making process.”
Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009, p. 27) posit that “…the benefits of involving parents in decision making are far reaching. Parent leaders can provide input into school policies on both local and national levels. They develop a sense of ownership in the school and in the decisions taken by
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the school. They become aware of meeting procedures, budgeting and legal requirements and develop their civic responsibility.”
In this way educators become aware of parents’ views and opinions which feed into school activities, policies and educational reform. When parents are convinced that their inputs are taken seriously and that they have a share in leadership, the status of the parent serving on committees and governance structures is enhanced and collaboration is guaranteed.
3.2.1.6 Working collaboratively with the community
Michael et al. (2012, p. 62) describe collaborating with the community as “identifying and integrating resources and co-services from the community to strengthen school programs and student learning and development.” Lemmer and Van Wyk (2007) believe that collaboration between the school and the parents also increases the resources available to the school, thus helping to individualize and enrich student work. Parents may also provide linkages to partnership with business, agencies, cultural institutions or other resources in the community.
Shields and Knapp (1997) and Calitz (2002) concur that school improvement is more likely to happen when a collaborative professional culture is developed at the school. They believe parents need to be able to perform certain responsibilities if their participation is to achieve the required objectives. According to Shields & Knapp (1997, p. 292), “it is therefore crucial that time and money is invested in empowering parents.”
Hymes (1974, p. 8-9) asserts that “parents love their children and children love their parents. If the teacher feels the same love, then a healthy working relationship will exist between parent and teacher, and teacher and child. Show your interest in a child and parents are on your side. Be casual, be off-handed, be cold towards the child and parents can never work closely with you…
To touch the child is to touch the parent. To praise the child is to praise the parent. To criticize the child is to hit at the parent. The two are two, but the two are one.”
It is therefore evident that, unless a working relationship is established where the school and the community work collaboratively and cooperatively, the goal of providing a quality education to the child will be missed.
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Another theory that highlights areas where parents need to provide support is the Human Capital theory.
3.3 Human Capital Theory
When discussing Coleman’s Human Capital Theory, Halpern (2005) identifies three kinds of capital that parents provide, namely: financial, human, and social capital.