Burge’s (2006) theory of ‘Rurality as a Sense of Place’ is the theoretical framework that underpinned the rurality aspect of the study. Bushnell (1999) posits that ‘rural’ designates an isolated region, often the now-fragmented remnants of a once flourishing farming community.
Rural areas are characterized by low socio-economic status, disconnected from metropolitan areas and low in population density.
3.6.1 Background to rurality
Different countries in the world have different experiences with regard to education in rural communities. Internationally, for example, Burge (2006) contends that in America, many rural communities are in economic distress. Isolation, oppression and historical tension cause learners and parents to be apathetic and to have limited aspirations which prevent them from seeing beyond the rural setting (Burge, 2006).
Authors such Sherwood (2000), Herzog and Pittman (2003), Lewis (2003) and Burge (2006) posit that because rural schools and communities are quite diverse, it is difficult for rural education researchers to define the concept of rurality or to establish a universal set of characteristics to describe or define rural schools and communities. Samuel (2005) concurs, stating that, in South Africa, there is no agreement about what constitutes rural and urban areas.
Depending on who uses them and for what purpose, definitions of what constitutes urban and rural areas differ considerably.
3.6.2 Rurality as a sense of place
Weber (1996) and Gruenewald (2003) describe ‘place’ as both that which is inhabited and that which is moved within. Budge (2004, p. 5) identifies six habits that define a sense of place:
“…connectedness, development of identity culture, interdependence with the land, spirituality, ideology and politics, activism and engagement.” Having grown up in a rural area and spent much time in rural milieu, my experience is that when people have lived in a particular place for a long time and got involved in cyclical patterns of behaviour and community involvement, they tend to develop a sense of ‘place’ or rootedness – i.e., they feel secure and at home there.
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Research has indicated that many inhabitants of rural settings have a salient attachment to place (Burge, 2006; Haas & Nachtigal, 1998; Howley et al., 1996; Kemmis, 1990; Porter, 2001).
However, this does not mean that rural people exclusively experience a sense of place, but the concept appears to be more pervasive in the literature on rural schools and communities than on urban and suburban places (Burge, 2006).
According to Gruenewald (2003, p. 622), “…as an educational construct, there is no single axiomatic theory of place that might inform educational studies. It is imperative to have an understanding of place in order to understand the nature of our relationships with each other and the world” (Gruenewald, 2003). However, the power of the ‘sense of place’ in our lives is profound. Hummon (1990) posits that through our place of residence, we form our world view and our understanding of other persons as well as ourselves.
Budge (2006) believes that people in rural areas articulate their own attachments to place as a privilege of experiencing a sense of an extended family, the place where people return to stay for many years, and/or want to raise their families. People rally around each other for support and everyone feels safe. Educators tend to know not only their students, but their family members as well - parents, brothers and sisters - and they care about each other as colleagues.
I concur with Budge (2006, p. 5) who contends that “…geographic characteristics provide inhabitants in rural areas with a life style that can be valuable - the physical geography of the valley, mountains, pristine rivers and lakes, and close proximity to a national park provide the residents of the area with many opportunities for recreation and renewal. The value of living close to the mountains for hiking and backpacking is immense. People enjoy the peace of life, not being in the traffic every day, [and] not being in town.”
Moreover, Smith and Martins (1997) regard the small size of classrooms, a pleasant personable atmosphere and a nurturing environment as strengths rural schools could put to effective use.
The potential of becoming a highly effective school exists in most rural areas. Yarrow (1999) posits that rural education has the potential to be a wonderful laboratory for educational innovation and improvement.
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The physical setting of the school, school rituals, the school curriculum and other school activities contribute to the rural construction of the school place (Bushnell, 1999). For education to be part of rural development, the school and the community need to be connected.
Burge (2006, p. 2) cites Michael Tierney, an activist working in rural West Virginia, who states that “there is something very powerful about the sense of place in rural communities that helps them transcend the challenge of poor infrastructure and few resources. Exploring the influence of rurality and place on rural leaders’ beliefs about the purpose(s) of local public schooling and their theories of action could help determine the potential relationship between schooling and the well-being of rural communities (Burge, 2006). Scientists from a variety of disciplines have confirmed that our behaviour, emotions, dispositions, and thoughts are “indeed shaped not just by our genes and neurochemistry, history, and relationships, but also by our surroundings”
(Gallagher, 1993, p. 12).
According to Marschall (2008, p. 16), the high rates of poverty among parents in Latino, Chicago, mean that they face great challenges when it comes to their children’s schooling. She found that parents and communities did not support or co-operate with schools and this resulted in low academic achievements and increased drop-out rates among learners. Poverty and the consequences thereof hampered parent participation in the life of the school.
Each rural community is unique. However, authors such as Beesen and Strange (2003), Budge (2006), Collins et al. (2001), Coverdale (1974), and Stern (1994) and others contend that many rural places possess similar strengths and face similar challenges such as a low population density and isolation, school and community interdependence, oppression as lived experience, a history of conflict regarding purposes of schooling, an out migration of young talent and a salient attachment to place.
Rural areas are known to have the highest levels of poverty and unemployment and the lowest levels of educational attainment. According to Griffith (1968), there is poverty which is not as abject as poverty of the cities, but the general level of poverty is nevertheless likely to be very low. There will be few, if any, substantial houses. There will be no hospital or doctor; the shops
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will stock only the simplest requirements. Books and newspapers will be very few because the majority of men and most women will be illiterate.
Samuel (2005, p. 2) concurs and posits that “…being there is not romantic. To be there is to be engaged in a struggle to live, and to hope. Money and jobs are scarce, the land itself harsh and demanding, and the schools, which straddle the old rural routines and the glittering prospect of a different life heralded by political and economic change in the far-away cities, are often ill- equipped, under-resourced and poorly staffed.”
Rural school buildings are of simplest construction. The classes for the youngest children are often overcrowded, but higher up the school the classes get smaller and smaller. The bigger children are wanted to help at home or in the fields, or they may have got bored and left school, or their families, especially those with increasing family members, may no longer be able to afford the fees. Moreover, some educators working in these areas will have had two years at a teacher training college, but many will be untrained. They will not be the intellectual cream of their generation because there are so many more attractive careers than teaching.
3.6.3 Being connected to a rural setting
In the South African rural context, people are dependent on one another for multiple reasons.
They also remain connected to their surroundings. Samuel (2005) posits that rural schools enjoy a spatial advantage. Learners enjoy first hand experiences with geographical concepts such as contour farming, river patterns, a place where they learn to milk cows, a place for ancestral worship and where customs are honoured and rituals are performed. Middlewood et al. (2005) and Samual (2005) corroborate and give practical examples. For example, through the establishment of a school vegetable garden, the local economy can be boosted as parents are also motivated to grow and sell vegetables at home. By selling vegetables to the community parents can raise extra funds to educate their children. Moreover, livestock and land are referred to as
‘banks’ because such resources are regarded as essential to the rural areas’ economy.
Maynard and Howley (1997) found that parent involvement programs for rural communities worked best when they were designed to meet specific needs of the communities they serve. It is not clear, however, if rural communities are any more or less likely than urban or suburban ones
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to involve parents in the educational process. Research provides conflicting findings. A study of 296 schools in Missouri by Sun, Hobbs and Elder (1994), for example, found that parent involvement was higher in rural than in urban communities. In contrast, findings from a large national survey of eighth-grade students suggest that parent involvement tends to be higher in urban and suburban communities than in rural communities (National Center for Education Statistics, 1994). Two areas of concern with regard to rurality is the socio-economic situation of the rural areas and the nature of the education provided.
Even if parental involvement turns out to be more prevalent in rural than in urban and suburban schools, rural educators may still face special challenges often associated with rural life. Among these challenges are isolation, poverty, and lack of job opportunities. The poverty of many rural communities limits parents' ability to provide for their children and to augment their children's education with resources in the home. Finally, the lack of job opportunities makes it harder for rural students to see any financial benefit to attendance or success in school (Bickel & Lange, 1995).
Burge (2006, p. 4) observed that, in rural areas, “…instead of the school experience building up student confidence and exposing them to options and opportunities for their future, students were viewed as apathetic and having limited aspirations. Students questioned the relevance of education to their lives. This resulted in learners failing to ‘see the big picture’ which prevented them from looking ahead. Many parents and community members were thought to have limited aspirations for their children and /or had a limited understanding of what their children would need to be successful in the future.”
3.7 Challenges experienced by rural primary schools in South Africa compared to other