In the academic field, ethics refers to a set of moral principles that aim to prevent researchers from harming those whom they research, something of particular concern when undertaking research on sensitive topics (Dickson-Swift 2005:21). Linda Bell (1993:48) argues that ethical considerations need to be integral to every phase of the research process: before, during and after. This was particularly true for this research as became clear via the Ethics Clearance Committee of UKZN, and the study was coded red by the researcher, indicating that a vulnerable group of people was being researched. As mentioned at the beginning of chapter one, female prisoners and ex-prisoners are emotionally, psychologically, economically, socially, politically and spiritually vulnerable. Therefore, it was important to make sure that they understood their rights in this study as explained in the following section.
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3.7.1. Informed consent
Each participant had to fill in a research consent form. This was in line with the argument of Chi Hoong Sin (2005:279) who says that research must as far as possible rely on research subjects who have freely given their consent after being provided with adequate information on the consequences and limits of their participation as well as on any potential risks that could result from taking part in the research. Clifford Christians (2005:144-45) affirms the views of Sin by stating that codes of ethics include informed consent, confidentiality and issues concerning risk and harm. Emmanuel et al.
(2000:2703) define informed consent as resulting from the provision of information to participants regarding the purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of the research, in such a way that a participant understands fully what is at stake and can come to a voluntary decision on whether to give her or his permission to participate or to decline.
Marina Barnard (2005:14-15) notes that in research concerned with vulnerable people and sensitive issues, the matter of informed consent needs to be emphasised. Researchers, when inviting potential participants to take part in their study, guarantee that interviews will be treated confidentially and that the identity of all interviewees will be protected from other participants. The aspect of confidentiality requires further explanation in this research because of its critical importance.
3.7.2. Confidentiality
Confidentiality involves concealing the identity of participants. In an atmosphere of confidence and trust participants are able to tell the researcher secrets which they might not want to reveal to others. Thus, although participants talked about their past activities in crime, having agreed to confidentiality, the researcher was not in a position to report them to the rightful authorities. Christians (2005:145) states clearly that:
No one deserves harm or embarrassment as a result of insensitive research practices. The most disturbing and unethical harm in research is when the participants are damaged by disclosure of their private world.
Dickson-Swift (2005 cited in Liamputtong 2007:37) urges researchers to protect the identity of their research participants by giving them fictional names when presenting their statements. In order to meet this requirement, throughout this research, real names
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were not revealed and were replaced by pseudonyms.
The interviews in this study were conducted on an individual basis so as to meet the ethical requirements of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, under the ethical clearance policy. As stated by Sarantakos (2005:18-19), researchers must take precautions to protect the welfare of participants and avoid anything that could bring them physical or emotional harm, as outlined in the next section. Importantly, he points out that researchers need to respect the autonomy and dignity of every individual.
3.7.3. Risks: safety of participants
According to Sin (2005:279), guaranteeing the anonymity of participants is not sufficient.
Researchers must also take the physical, emotional and social wellbeing of participants into account. According to Margaret Melrose (2002:343), irrespective of the fact that participants have signed their agreements, researchers must ensure that no harm comes to any of them as a result of the research. In addition, Raymond Lee (1995) suggests that discussions of qualitative methodology need to focus more on safety issues. Because of the extent and depth to which participants may be involved in a study, Prenee Liamputtong (2007:38) contends that researchers have to make sure that research findings will not further marginalise participants. It is for this reason that information that emerged during the fieldwork had to be selectively included in this study. Information which might put the participants in trouble with the law and their family members was purposefully left out.
Warnings regarding the fieldwork process causing emotional distress in participants were heeded. Of particular importance in this study were Alty and Rodham’s (1998:280) recommendations that researchers follow up interviews with a debriefing sessions, giving participants the occasion to discuss situations or feelings that had triggered difficult emotions. In the course of the interviews in this study, there were times when participants were unable to talk, but only wept. Debriefing was followed by pastoral counselling, provided from a feminist viewpoint. This action is supported by Emily Paradis (2000:84) who confirms that debriefing is not sufficient but that participants need in addition other types of support including counselling. In summary, the advice of Cutcliffe a n d Ramcharan (2002:1002) in terms of ethical considerations was followed which includes
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the following points:
Trust must be developed with the participants and essentially required throughout the research process: not just as a one-off event at the beginning of the research;
Ensure that informed consent is obtained prior to the commencement of the research and re-established during the research process;
Make sure that the participants are respected and that their dignity remains intact throughout the research process;
Terminating the research process and withdrawal from the field must be dealt with tactfully and sensitively;
Inform the participants that they have the right to check how they are represented in transcripts and writing;
Be cautious about potential harm to the research participants and prepare a safety net of support if needed.