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particular the religio-cultural aspects which shape it, to bring about more equity between men and women. This equity is demanded by the theory of feminist theological anthropology, which promotes an understanding of the fundamental value of all humanity and a re-examination of the nature of women so that female convicts are not simply condemned for having deviated from the assumed feminine “norm”. Furthermore, rehabilitation comprises reintegration, which refers to the process of returning the offender to a full and productive participation in community life (Dissel 2008:156), which is particularly important, given the central role of communality in the African context.
These three points on the definition of what rehabilitation is, are now used to give a gendered analysis of current rehabilitation theories, which will enable drawing out those features which are deemed to be of use in rehabilitating female prisoners and ex-prisoners, especially in the Zimbabwean setting. First however, the requirement for gender- sensitivity in the rehabilitation process is discussed in more detail.
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poison and also gave some to my child and the baby died and I was arrested.
Participant Piwai stated what the legal system classified as a crime:
I was sentenced for theft. I stole nappies for a baby. I was pre gnant and wanted them for my baby. My husband ran away from me when the economic situation in Zimbabwe was tough. He left me pregnant and never came back.
I am not married but I have a child with this man.
The point that criminal behaviour itself is gendered is therefore associated with the third recommended point (that of the need to take the socio-economic and political context of ex-prisoners into account) presented in the proposed definition of rehabilitation outlined above. However, what is discussed in this section examines, as mentioned, the second recommended feature: the overarching need for gender-sensitivity in the process of rehabilitation.
A number of experts in the rehabilitation field have raised the need to develop gender specific interventions. According to Barbara Bloom and Stephanie Covington (1998:7), the Office of Juvenile and Delinquency Prevention (OJDP) in the United States defines gender-specific services as follows: those which are designed to meet the needs of female offenders; that value and honour female experience; that respect and take into account female development; and that empower girls and young women to reach their full potential. As noted by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime:
Although many problems women face during re-entry into society are similar to that of men, the intensity and multiplicity of their post-release needs can be very different. Women are likely to suffer particular discrimination after release from prison, due to social stereotypes. They might be rejected by their families, [may lose out on employment opportunities] and in some countries they may lose their parental rights (2008:22).
According to Modie-Moroka and Sossou (2001:15-16), research and practice suggest that female offenders have special needs not typically addressed by programmes designed for male offenders. Examples are as follows: first, programmes for men include anger management training to promote appropriate means of expressing anger, whereas women may also find it difficult to express anger but they would need different techniques to deal with this, as argued by Inciard et al. (1993).
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None of the participants in the present study have received anger management training. It is in this context that women are to be provided with alternative skills training.
It is believed that women respond positively to techniques that reduce feelings of guilt and self-blame, as well as the improvement of self-esteem and self-awareness (Bloom and Covington 1998).
Second, females are also more receptive to parenting skills training and since they are the usually the caregivers, this type of programme is essential for female inmates (Peugh and Belenko 1999).
Third, vocational and educational programmes are readily available for males to learn a trade that enables them to earn a living when they re-enter society. However, the females tend to receive very little vocational and educational training (Gray et al. 1995). The training they do receive is for low paying jobs with little opportunity for advancement.
Most women offenders who are mothers will return to their children after release and they need a means to support these children. Many of these women do not expect to receive financial or emotional support from their husbands (Prendergast, Wellisen and Falkin1995).
As a large proportion of the women have no marketable skills, many female inmates re- offend (Shearer and Baletka 1999). Vocational and educational training for female prisoners that enable female ex-prisoners to acquire jobs in order to earn a living and to raise their children is therefore of great importance.
The features of gender sensitive programmes highlighted above by the OJDP have clearly shown the need for the self-empowerment of female prisoners, including their financial self-sustainability. This need for self-empowerment was clearly articulated by Participant Rudo who asserted that:
I need some substantial capital to start a business of craft work, so it would be helpful that organizations working with ex-prisoners would give a loan for a start. CBZ bank lends money but it is very little. I need a reasonable amount of money to go and sell the craft work in B o t s w a n a and Angola. I used to sell in South Africa as well. At the same time ex-prisoners are to be encouraged to start clubs which help them to raise funds, while the government offers rehabilitation programmes which include education and
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Participant Rudo is interested in small-scale trading in neighbouring countries, and also in small-scale farming for her household. She went on to say:
My husband is a farmer and has no inputs to embark on farming. Prison Fellowship did not give inputs o f fertilizer. The help I got was from a researcher. She gave me fertilizer and seeds and I grew tomatoes for sale. She also gave me twenty balls of wool and I knitted jerseys for sale.
Having discussed reasons given by professionals or experts working in the field as to why gender-sensitivity is essential for rehabilitation programmes for women offenders, as well as having provided the views in this regard of some female prisoners and ex- prisoners who participated in this study, it becomes necessary to analyse current rehabilitation theories from a gendered perspective.