CHAPTER SIX: APPLICATION OF EMPOWERMENT THEORY TO EDUCATION
6.2. THE APPLICATION OF EMPOWERMENT THEORY TO THE CONTEXT OF EDUCATION
6.2.1. Features of an empowerin2 education
perspective. The naturalistic nature of action research also increases its ecological validity, creating data that is a more honest, accurate reflection of its context. Advances within the field of qualitative research (Speeret al., 1992) have also resulted in greater methodological rigour and hence a more pragmatic approach to the choice of methodology has been noted since the 1980s.Itis impossible, therefore, to dismiss qualitative research as
methodologically inferior to empiricism. Garfinkel (in Winter, 1987) adopts a similar
viewpoint, arguing that the tendency to uphold empirical criteria as universally true, creates a false dichotomy between the apparent ideals of empiricism and the comparative weaknesses of action research. He claims that action research should be judged according to its own standards of rigour rather than dismissed as a weak form of applied empiricism. These include credibility of data, transferability of information and trustworthiness of research methods used (Hooking, 1985).
6.2. THE APPLICATION OF EMPOWERMENT THEORY TO THE CONTEXT
boost present competencies and, in the process, build confidence. Active and experiential methods of teaching and learning are also used and local experiences are valued and emphasised, aiming at building a sense of self worth and self acceptance among learners.
Formal education, in its traditional forms, however, is often distant and foreign to students.
They are assigned the role of passive recipient of knowledge and excluded from curriculum planning and decision making. Empowering learning, on the other hand, is collaborative, with learners active in setting their own learning goals, leading to greater commitment to study ("Participatory Learning", 1995).
One of the most thorough accounts of an empowering education is proposed by Cummins (1986) who relates high minority failure rates to power relations between students and teachers and minority and majority groups in the broader society. While minority failure is often interpreted as the result of language difficulties, costly linguistic reforms have had little impact on failure rates, suggesting the role of complex factors, such as power relations in society, or the cultural identity of minority groups. As evidence for the role of these factors, Cummins cites the fmding that Finnish students do well in Australian schools, where they are regarded as a high status group, but poorly in Sweden, where they constitute a low status minority (Troike, 1978 in Cummins, 1986). He therefore argues that any educational reform has to be interpreted within the context of power relations between social groups as the same patterns of disempowerment occur within schools as in the broader society.
Four structural factors within the educational context are then identified which readjust power relations between minority and majority groups and therefore empower minority students.
Firstly attempts should be made to value and incorporate the minority culture and language within the educational setting rather than seeking to replace students' primary culture and language. Secondly community and parental participation in education should be encouraged.
Thirdly pedagogical factors play a role in the empowerment of minority students. A traditional education is hierarchically structured. Itfocuses on the giving of knowledge by a superior teacher, who controls all classroom interactions, to pupils who lack knowledge and are
therefore considered inferior. Anempowering methodology, on the other hand, views teaching as a collaboration between learners and a teacher who facilitates rather than controls learning.
Tasks are designed to generate intrinsic motivation and develop meaningful rather than rote learning. Finally Cummins calls for assessment to be used to advocate for the rights of minority groups and focus attention on societal and educational contextual causes of failure.
This contrasts with the conventional use of assessment to label minority students as "at risk"
or "having deficits" thus blaming them for their own failures.
Curnmins' approach is useful in highlighting the relationship between the empowerment of minority students and broader societal power relations. He articulates one of the main reasons why some empowerment interventions fail, namely that they leave unchallenged relations between teachers and students, schools and minority communities and minority and majority groups in society at large. He also points out that interventions aimed solely at addressing the language difficulties of minority groups are doomed to fail, because they ignore the
interdependence of academic and linguistic factors on one hand, and cultural identity and power issues on the other. This makes his model particularly relevant to the South African tertiary context, where high failure rates among black students are often interpreted as the result of second language difficulties, leading to a proliferation of academic literacy and writing courses, most of which ignore the issue of institutional and societal power relations.
Cummins' approach is also an important one in relation to this study, which rejects the focus on academic and linguistic skills of most student development interventions, as well as the focus on institutional transformation currently advocated by academic development, on the grounds that both ignore students' feelings of powerlessness. By empowering students and increasing their sense of confidence and control, the present study sought to change the power relations between staff and students, empowering students to gain the confidence to challenge certain aspects of their studies, thus elevating their status and addressing Cummins' concerns.
Although Curnmins' approach is central to a discussion on academic empowerment, his model is a theoretical one, based on anecdotal evidence. To evaluate its efficacy, detailed comparison of institutions adopting such a model with those using traditional approaches is needed.
Like Cummins, Maton and Salem (1995) move beyond the level of individual factors, to identify empowering structural features common to a non-denominational church, a mutual help organisation for the mentally ill, and the MeyerhoffScholars Programme (M.S.P.). This is a programme for African American students at a largely white university, with potential in the sciences. Features of the M.S.P. included peer study, co-operative learning, nurturing relations with a tutor, development of appropriate academic skills and teaching students to access relevant university resources, similar features to those emphasised in the current programme.
Using a multiple case study method, four empowering organisational features were identified.
Firstly was the presence of a belief system that inspired growth among participants and sought to encourage the development of existing competencies. In the M.S.P., for example, students were explicitly taught that, given access to resources such as staff help, study groups and peer tutoring, they all had the potential for psycho-social and academic growth.
Secondly, all three organisations provided opportunities for participants to adopt multiple roles, requiring a range of skills. All students in the M.S.P. were encouraged to join study groups, participate in research and volunteer for community outreach programmes.
All three organisations also offered both material and emotional support. The M.S.P. offered formal staff support as well as opportunities for informal, peer-based support and a sense of belonging to the group. Opportunities for both formal skills development and emotional support were also provided in the current study to be discussed in the following chapter.
The last feature identified, was the presence of committed leaders who inspired and supported growth among members. The M.S.P. was led by the African American president of the
university, who had a clear vision of black students achieving success and communicated this to staff and students. Emphasis was also placed on affirmation of students by leaders at all levels, from senior students to the university president.
This study is one of few to focus directly on the empowering organisational features of a diverse range of community organisations.Itis, however, somewhat limited by the lack of
comparison with non-empowering settings, making it difficult to determine whether the above features are, indeed, unique to empowering settings. Future research is therefore needed to determine the extent to which findings are unique to empowering organisations as well as the extent to which they can be generalised to other types of empowering settings. While the qualitative nature of the study allows for detailed analysis of the features of empowering contexts, a link between the above organisational processes and empowering outcomes, as distinguished by Zimmerman (1995) has not been established. Quasi-experimental studies exploring the link between the above features of the M.S.P. and outcomes such as improved academic performance, in comparison with a control group, are therefore needed.
To summarise the above findings, an education that empowers, seeks to boost competences and values learners' language and culture. Itis also active, experiential and collaborative, encouraging learners to set their own goals and valuing parental and community participation.
Such learning takes place in a context that supports growth and development. Anempowering education also challenges existing power relations between groups.
6.2.2. Educational empowerment interventions:
The above features have formed the foundation for a number of interventions. The Bernard Van Leer Foundation, for example, is committed to funding projects in developing countries, based on the above principles of community education and empowerment ("Participatory Learning", 1995). The Community Publishing Process in Zimbabwe, is one of their projects and emphasises ownership of learning by students (Nyathi and Chikuhuhu, 1995). They collaborate in the design and production of their own curriculum and materials, including research and planning, writing, editing, printing, distribution and finally evaluation of materials. A similar emphasis on collaboration is found in the Mexican 'New Spaces for Education' programme, a child care programme for mothers (Linares, 1995). Parents' self esteem, self efficacy and confidence are boosted so they take greater control of their children's education. Similar emphasis on self development is found in the Centre for Health Education
,
Training and Nutrition Awareness (C.H.E.T.N.A.), which provides community health training for Indian women and children (Capoor and Vakharia, 1995). Effective empowerment is not
seen merely as a process of skills development, but also emotional, social and psychological development. Hence empowerment cannot provide a quick fix solution or show immediate changes, but involves a long-term, continuous process of growth and development.
Through comparison of child development projects in a slum and rural settlement in Thailand, the Schools without Frontiers project (Richard, 1995) realised the importance of a sense of community to empowerment. As the slum consisted of a migratory group, with no community ties or established structures, a sense of community had to be established, before attempts at empowerment could prove effective. The rural community, on the other hand, had traditional structures and a sense of unity, and therefore empowerment proceeded more quickly.
Although formal evaluation of the above Bernard Van Leer Foundation projects is lacking, they demonstrate several key aspects of an empowerment process. These include a sense of community among participants, community collaboration at all stages of an intervention, and a balance between skills and self development. In addition the importance of a suitably long time frame for empowerment is highlighted, and the necessity of ongoing monitoring and evaluation of initiatives. All ofthese features were part of the design of the current study.
Lazarus's (1985) action research study attempted to understand the educational experiences of a group of black adolescents who had dropped out of school and were participating in an alternative educational programme. Her study is one of few to directly apply the principles of action research and empowerment to the local educational context, using these to develop a set of guidelines for an empowering education. Hers is also one of few South African studies to explore the experiences of students closer in age and background to those studied in this thesis. In aim, methodology, content and population, her study thus overlaps with this one.
Multiple qualitative methods, including participant observation, in-depth interviews and small group discussions were used to gather information about students' previous experiences in the formal educational sector and current experiences in this programme. Students reported
feelings of alienation and powerlessness at their previous school, which they attributed to such factors as an authoritarian teaching style, excessive use of rote learning and the absence of
critical thinking or academic debate. In this setting, however, they perceived themselves as having greater control over their learning, which they attributed to their participation in the programme, with particular emphasis on its collaborative nature, a focus on the socio-political context within which learning occurred, the development of autonomous learning skills and the emphasis on critical thinking and debate. These were all features incorporated into the design of the current programme, to be discussed in the following chapter.
The action research methodology was considered empowering in providing students with opportunities to express themselves and reflect on their own educational experiences, thus gaining greater self awareness. Feelings of self worth were also increased due to students' perception that they were contributing to educational change (Lazarus, 1985).
Students developed a set of recommendations for an empowering education, including
collaboration in all aspects of the educational process, critical evaluation of the socio-political context within which learning takes place, training in communication, and the development of feelings of control, competence and confidence. These elements again highlight the need to balance self and skills development, as discussed above (Capoor and Vakharia, 1995).
I consider this study a valuable one, both in its use of an action research methodology as a way of increasing student empowerment, and in the development of recommendations for an empowering education. These recommendations not only allow students to improve their own situation, but can be applied to other contexts, contributing to the empowerment of others.
Lazarus (1985) does mention several methodological concerns, including the small sample size, lack of control over variables, and reliance on qualitative methods. This last issue should not, however, be viewed as a limitation of the study (as Lazarus implies), but should rather be located within the context of the recent rise in acceptability of qualitative methods in the social sciences, as discussed in section 6.1.2. Hence Lazarus' s clear articulation of methods and evidence, use of credible research methods, and development of recommendations which can be transferred from one educational context to another, meet the criteria for rigour in action research (Hooking, 1985) and thus the study should not be judged inferior to empiricism.
Anintervention particularly relevant to this thesis is Taylor and Burgess's (1995) two year social work course, one of few attempts to apply the principles of empowerment to tertiary level courses. The course sought to increase learners' sense of control, at the level of personal
autonomy, student autonomy, which refers to taking responsibility for one's own learning and finally an overall philosophy of lifelong learning and enquiry applied to all aspects of one's life.
Strategies for developing a sense of empowerment among students included the replacement of lectures on isolated topics with study units on real life issues, tailored to students' unique needs and experiences, and dealt with by co-operative learning groups. Students had choice in the composition of groups, selection of issues to focus on, approaches to the topic and assessment methods. In addition they were free to select from among a set of learning activities or to design their own. Group goal setting, reflection and evaluation also formed an integral part of the learning process.
Qualitative evaluation of the course revealed that students found the approach beneficial and felt that it encouraged good performance, although they stressed the need for orientation to the unique demands of an autonomous learning course. This issue, and the accompanying changes to the course will be expanded upon in section 6.2.5.
6.2.3. Measurin2 empowerment in an educational context:
Anarea that has been sorely neglected in the empowerment research and intervention literature is the issue of how to measure empowerment outcomes. Evaluation of interventions appears to be either informal (Cummins, 1986) or qualitative (Lazarus, 1995; Maton and Salem, 1995 and Taylor and Burgess, 1995). While qualitative evaluation allows for rich detail regarding
participants' subjective experiences of empowerment, it is difficult to compare interventions across settings. Quantitative measures of empowerment are therefore also needed to measure the outcomes of empowerment processes and allow for comparison between participants and non-participants. Two such attempts are the School Participant Empowerment Scale (Short and Rinehart, 1992) and the Self Empowerment Index (Wilson, 1993), measures of teachers' sense of empowerment to effect change in the school context.
The 38 item School Participant Empowerment Scale (Short and Rinehart, 1992) discriminated between a group of teachers currently involved in an empowering intervention and a control group. Factor analysis led to the identification of six factors of school empowerment, namely decision making, professional growth, status, self efficacy, autonomy and impact.
Anattempt at replication, however, cast some doubt on the validity of the scale, failing to confirm the original six sub-scales identified (Klecker and Loadman, 1998). The scale also appears to have poor content validity, omitting such issues as professional knowledge and the relationship between power and knowledge, both considered central to teacher empowerment in the literature (Maeroff, 1988 and Munns and Nunnery, 1993 both in Klecker and Loadman, 1998).Itthus appears that more items need to be included and further replication take place, before the scale can be considered a valid measure of teacher empowerment.
The 25 item Self Empowerment Index (Wilson, 1993) is based in part on Maslow's theory of self-actualisation and also on Block's (1987 in Wilson, 1993) theory of organisational
empowerment as involving an intra-psychic sense of autonomy and the expression thereof to others. The scale showed good discriminantv~ljdity,separating empowered teachers from those who were not. Exploratory factor analysis identified three factors of empowerment, namely an internal sense of autonomy, courage to take risks, and self-reflection. More work is needed, however, to confirm the reliability and validity of the measure.
Both measures represent important initial attempts to explore the measurement of
empowerment within an educational context although more work is required, to confirm their reliability and validity. Both measures are also very specific to the empowerment of teachers to contribute to educational transformation and thus could not be adapted for this study. Thus a new measure of empowerment as it relates to study behaviour was required.