4. Conceptual Framework
4.2 Feminisation of poverty
4.2.1 Origins of feminisation of poverty
The feminization of poverty according to Chistensen (2019) is that women and children are amongst the world’s poorest group in most societies. Diane Pearce coined the term feminisation of poverty in the 70s following the debate of single mothers and their welfare in America (Pearce, 1978). According to Pearce (1978), income poverty is at the epicentre of feminisation of poverty. This is due to the gender inequalities in society where men get privileges of better salaries as compared to women in workplaces. Pearce (1978) further indicated that female- headed households’ income or wages were reduced by 36 percent, due to the fact of their sex and race, even though they had the same educational status as that of men. Pearce’s (1978) argument was that a lack of income made poverty prevalent and persistent in women’s livelihood. In her research Pierce discovered that of the 15 million poor people, two thirds of them were women above the age of 16. Hence, the term feminisation of poverty has been linked to the increase in the number of female-headed households and the rise of female participation in the exploitative low paying jobs The arguments of the feminisation of poverty concept by Pierce (1973) greatly influenced the works of Dr Silvia Chant (2006) and Christensen (2019) who tried to strengthen the idea by testing the feminisation of poverty in South America and sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, this study by using the feminisation of poverty concept it will be able to understand the idea that poverty in female-headed households in Nganunu village farming community is feminised and manmade.
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The economic crises in 1983 ushered in economic structural adjustment programmes (SAPS) in sub- Saharan Africa and Latin America and these led to the widening of gender inequalities especially in accessing of public services (Chant, 2003; PLAN UK, 2010; FAO,2011).
Countries introduced policies that tightened the government expenditure forcing these governments to remove subsidies in order to allow the economies to recover. However, removing subsidies forced families to choose between taking care of the needs of a female child and that of the male child leaving most females vulnerable as the patriarchal society principles reigned (FAO, 2008; World Bank Development Report,2008; Gender Action, 2011).
Gender Action (2011) notes that societies normally prefer investing in the male child as a result depriving girls their rights in accessing public services especially education. According, to Plan UK (2010) the first step to sanctioning the reality of feminisation of poverty at a global scale is depriving an individual their rights to education as education is the only hope for bringing financial empowerment and independency to an individual.
ZIMSTAT (2017) states that 52 percent of the poor are female hence, there is need to look thoroughly at the feminisation of poverty to find the causes and deal with them. The gender policy also adds that the reason why women are prone to poverty is due to the fact that most of the time women are confined to the domesticated private sphere where they work on agricultural land for family consumption (Glazebrook, 2020; FAO, 2017; WFP, 2015; Chant, 2003; ZNGP, 2004; FAO, 2008). Most of the women’s energy is used in labour intensive tasks and looking after the young ones of the family, the ill and elderly, fetching water and firewood, and in most cases, this is free unpaid labour done by women in the name of home maintenance (FAO, 2011; Krishnan & Horrell, 2007). Furthermore, the feminisation of poverty concept also guided the researcher on the causes that make female-headed households’ poverty inescapable.
For instance, in most privatised economies investors normally look into supporting organisations that are formal and registered such as commercial farms ignoring subsistence farming where women are dominant (Action Aid, 2008). Without access to investment women’s agricultural activities remain small thereby denying women chances to improve revenue and food security (FAO, 2011). As a result, women remain more vulnerable to escalating food prices and growing food insecurities facing developing countries (FAO, 2011).
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4.2.3 Feminisation of poverty and gender mainstreaming in Zimbabwe
Despite women’s critical role in food production, women still do not have access to land which makes it difficult for them to fully participate in their agricultural activities (Jaka et al., 2018).
In order to ensure that women and men equally participate in and benefit from developmental issues, Chiweshe et al. (2014) and Gaidzanwa et al. (2012) advocate for gender awareness programs to be channelled in monetary policies. They agree that gender mainstreaming is the only way that women’s issues can be addressed. Gaidzanwa et al. (2012) concurs with Gender Action (2011) that gender mainstreaming helps improve public policies by making them more humane and socially just. Men and women should live in a society that allows all citizens to thrive without fear of discrimination. For instance, there was a strong appeal that women should also benefit from the land reform and for the first time women managed to get 18 percent of A1 farms which was a commended development as women did not previously have sole land rights. Hence, it is against these strengths that the researcher opted to evaluate ADRA- Zimbabwe’s Basic Agricultural Programme using the feminisation of poverty as a yard stick.
4.2.4 Weaknesses of the feminization of poverty Concept.
The ‘‘feminization of poverty’’ concept presents women either as homogeneous, or are differentiated solely on grounds of household headship. This point introduces problems in understanding why some women become poor, while others do not. It makes poverty in women appear as if it were caused primarily by sexism. Giminez (1990) argued that gender related factors are relevant correlates (not determinants) of poverty only among women whose class location already makes them vulnerable to poverty. It is against this argument that the researcher used the social perspective which seeks to understand how the cash transfer can foster sustainable human development and social justice in communities hence strengthening the weaknesses of the feminization of poverty perspective by empowering women and therefore eradicate poverty amongst women.
The following section will discuss the social protection perspective to understand how the ADRA-Zimbabwe cash transfer system can foster sustainable human development and social justice in communities. This perspective also shows how social protection should help in reducing poverty through creating opportunities of health, education and employment.
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