4. Conceptual Framework
4.3 Social Protection Perspective
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programmes designed at safeguarding employees and their families from contingencies threatening basic living standards. Social protection is normally funded through external donors, tax payers (Adato & Hoddinott, 2018; AIR, 2014; Barrientos & Hulme, 2008).
Therefore, for Barrientos (2010) social protection acts as a buffer zone or safety net for employees and their immediate families when they met unanticipated adversity that can impend basic living standards such as retrenchment or an unexpected dismissal from work or natural disasters.
The next section will discuss the rationale for Social Protection to improve the living standards of societies
4.3.2 Utilising social protection to improve livelihoods
Social protection represents and embraces different approaches to economic and social development, besides its role as a policy framework which deals with poverty and vulnerability (Barrientos, 2010). There are two different rationales on social protection suggested by different developmental organisations such as International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the United Nations (UN) (Barrientos & Hulme, 2008). The first rationale of social protection ILO derives it from the bill of rights as explained and enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights established by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 is that social protection is a basic human right.
a) It is every individual’s right to be protected through public and collective measures from declining standards of living whether seen or unforeseen (Barrientos & Hulme, 2008).
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 states that, everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of the individual and their families.
The declaration made many organisations rethink their objectives in ensuring social protection is maintained, for instance ILO changed its goal to secure decent work for all people be it a woman or man (Barrientos, 2010). In this study, the researcher intends to find if the ADRA- Zimbabwe was implemented in a way that ensures social protection in female-headed households by making sure that all their needs are met and those of their families as well.
b) Secondly, the Social Protection Strategy Paper from the World Bank, shows another rationale for social protection which is social protection as a social risk management approach (Barrientos, 2010).
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Social risk management augments social protection programmes by, “putting macroeconomic stability and financial market development to assist people, households and communities through designing financial insurance which help in establishing a buffer zone on income risks”
(Conway et al., 2001). For example, Rwanda in 2000 projected that more than half of the entire populace of Rwanda survived on less than $1.25 a day. Rwanda’s economy had a GDP per capita of 143.04 in 1994 but through government’s all-inclusive macroeconomic financial insurances and a stable financial market Rwanda’s GDP per capita increased to 417.68 by 2014 (ECA, 2015). The importance of risk management therefore, helps in preventing the vulnerable populace of society to feel the restraint on economic and human development. The ADRA- Zimbabwe intends to prevent the vulnerable groups of the societies that is women, ill, elderly and children from feeling insecure and being pressured by extreme poverty. The program then ensures that there is enough stability in the rural areas of Zvishavane which help protecting women.
4.3.3 Developed communities’ view of social protection
Social protection has been extremely prominent in developed countries its main obligation has been providing assistance to the homeless and unemployed of the society (Barrientos, 2010).
For developed countries the emphasis of social protection is on income maintenance and on protecting the standards of living for all (Barrientos & Hulme, 2008; Barrientos, 2010).
The following section will discuss the introduction of social protection in the developing nations.
4.3.4 Introduction of social protection to developing nations
In developing countries, there is quite a number of female-headed households which are more vulnerable to poverty that their male counterparts and being in developing countries does not help in their situations. In the case of Nganunu village, unequal distribution of resources ad power affect women’s rights, opportunities, and outcomes at all stages of their lives, which can be worsened if they become heads of families. Social protection in developing countries, started in the 1980s when there was an upsurge of poverty and vulnerability due to the crisis caused by Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPS) (Barrientos, 2010). Social protection thus, in developing countries, has a strong focus on alleviation of poverty amongst the poor communities which most of them includes female-headed households. (Barrientos & Hulme, 2008; Barrientos, 2010). In developing countries, much attention is given to addressing the causes of poverty, and not simply its symptoms (World Bank, 2001). The attention of social
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protection for most developing economies is not restricted to uplifting the poor, but aspires to have a broader developmental role (Barrientos & Hulme, 2008). This notion is established from the perception that the prime cause of persistent poverty especial in female-headed households is to be found in the constraints faced by women in taking advantage of economic opportunities which can be explained to a greater extent, by their vulnerability to the impact of economic, social and natural hazards unlike their male counterparts (Wood, 2001). Thus, in the absence of social protection, vulnerabilities impact directly on living standards of a society (UNDP, 2015).
4.3.5 Categories of social protection
The International Labour Organisation (ILO), categorises social protection into three subdivisions namely social insurance, social assistance and labour market regulation (ILO, 2005). Social insurance is supplementary financial security given to employees in time for privation, for example paid leave for maternity, sick leave, unemployment benefits for those faced with retrenchment or dismissal and pension funds for old age (Barrientos & Hulme, 2008). Social insurance is funded by contributions taken monthly from the employee’s pay check and the employer also makes a contribution towards the fund to help insure their employees from unforeseen mishaps of life (ILO, 2005; Conway et al., 2000). Whereas, social assistance is responsible for supporting those who are not part of the formally employed task force but are in dire poverty and it is tax financed in most cases the unemployed group being women because men are the ones being employed in most jobs in the communities leaving women in poverty (Adato & Hoddinott, 2018; AIR, 2014; ILO, 2005; Conway et al., 2000).
Government is normally the one responsible for social assistance but due to its failure non- governmental organisations have also managed to chip in to assist with cash or in-kind donations (Handina, 2010; Adato & Hoddinott, 2018). The third subdivision of social protection is the labour and employment standards. It is mainly found in developed countries and its mandate is to ensure that employees have a voice (rights) in their workplaces and it also ensures that basic standards at work are being addressed (ILO, 2005; Conway et al., 2000). In the context of this study, the second category of social protection which is the social assistance is applied because it deals mainly with vulnerable groups including female-headed households.
Social assistance encompasses all interventions geared to people living in deep poverty. In developing countries social assistance programs have traditionally comprised a significant portion of social protection (Cook & Kebeer, 2009). Clearly showing that, social assistance has been applied in this study.
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4.3.6 Cash transfers as a tool for social protection in female-headed households
Cash transfers as a tool of social protection and a policy framework aims at reducing poverty and vulnerability among female-headed households (Handina, 2010; AIR, 2014). Cash transfers when implemented properly can help to bring economic independence to the targeted recipients. Protection starts with idiosyncratic feelings that the cash that they are getting is giving them a sense of security and relief and equality with those families headed by men. This later will bring a confidence to the beneficiaries and all stakeholders proving that cash transfers can help people to come out of poverty and be self-sufficient even after the cash transfer is gone. Thus, this study assessed the contribution of Basic Agricultural Assistance Programme in alleviating poverty amongst female-headed households by giving them knowledge, tools, land and seeds so that their farming activities are strengthened which gives them bigger profits and life changing results by making them self-sufficient farmers.
There are several features distinguishing the emerging paradigm of social protection in developing countries. For instance, social protection in developing countries includes a strong urge in poverty reduction and on providing support to the poorest (Conway et al., 2000;
Barrientos & Hulme 2008). Whereas in developed countries the stress of social protection is on income maintenance and on protecting living standards for all (especially formally employed workers). In developing countries, the most emphasis of social protection is on addressing the causes of poverty, and not simply its symptoms which is the core of developing countries (World Bank, 2001). The main focus of social protection is not restricted to compensating those in poverty for their income shortfall, but aspires to own a broader developmental role. The emerging social protection paradigm in developing countries is additionally distinguished by a spotlight on risk and vulnerability. This is supported the understanding that a primary reason for persistent poverty is to be found within the constraints faced by the poor in taking advantage of economic opportunity, which might be explained, to a good extent, by their vulnerability to the impact of economic, social and natural hazards. In the absence of social protection, hazards impact directly on living standards. In addition, they motivate risk-averse behaviour among those in poverty, which is detrimental to their long-term welfare, for instance, responding to financial crises by taking children out of faculty or economizing on primary health care.
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