events that undermine coping ability by reducing household capabilities and eroding the asset base (Glavovic et al., undated). Vulnerability to food insecurity is progressive and caused by series of negative events (Swift & Hamilton, 2001: 67).
Analysing vulnerability requires not only understanding the factors that cause insecurity, but the elements within a household or community that resist or mitigate the impacts of threats (Moser, 1998). Resilience is the ability of a household to absorb effects of shocks and stresses (Gillespie & Loevinsohn, 2003). Glavovic et al. (undated) defines resilience as the amount of disturbance that a household can withstand while maintaining a state of equilibrium. Resistance to shocks and stresses is mitigated by assets that individuals and households mobilise to respond to threats. Therefore, the more assets households own or can mobilise, the less vulnerable they are to shocks and stresses, and the greater the attrition of assets, the greater is their livelihood insecurity (Moser, 1998). The likelihood of suffering negative effects of shocks or stresses is increased if households have no or low assets to sell or exchange (Meikle, 2002).
Vulnerability to food insecurity can be explained by the Entitlement Approach (Sen, 1981: 44-48; Dreze` & Sen, 1989: 9). According to Sen (1981: 3-4), exchange entitlements are particular set of assets a person is able to exchange for a commodity bundle (food, clothing, electricity, water, or diversity of diet). Maxwell and Smith (1992) classify five types of entitlements that include productive capital (land, equipment, livestock and buildings), non-productive capital (jewellery and dwellings), human capital (ability to work, skills, and health), income (crops and livestock) and claims (loans, gifts and social contacts) (Maxwell & Smith, 1992). Depleted entitlements or inadequate access to any „entitlement‟ or asset poses significant threats to food security as individuals and households are unable to exchange these for food. This illustrates an inherent link between low assets and vulnerability to food insecurity.
Vulnerability to food insecurity is caused primarily by a lack of cash income to acquire food (Maxwell, 1995). Table 2.6 highlights key factors that cause vulnerability to food
insecurity in Mooiblom, an informal settlement outside the town of Ceres in the Western Cape Province (Meikle et al., 2002; Arnall et al., 2004).
Table 2.6 Key factors that contribute to livelihood vulnerability in Mooiblom, South Africa (adapted from Meikle et al., 2002; Arnall et al., 2004)
Level of threat
Micro- level Meso-level
Unemployment (informal economic activities);
Underemployment;
Lack of social assistance;
Leaking shack;
Hunger;
Shack not wind-proof;
Shack fires;
Poor clothing;
Shack too small.;
Concern over dependents;
Crime;
Excessive drinking;
Human loss;
Lack of community assistance;
Polluted natural environment (disease and illness);
Poor health;
Lack of education.
Unemployment;
Underemployment;
Rising prices;
Lack of social assistance;
Poor sanitation;
Refuse/pollution;
Lack of electricity;
Improper services and infrastructure;
Crime;
Excessive drinking;
Weather too cold;
Storm damage;
Bad water facilities;
Poor health.
Micro threats are shocks or hazards that threaten isolated households whereas meso threats are events that affect numerous households at once (World Bank, 2001). Some threats such as unemployment are chronic and persistent causing hunger at household and community levels and are placed in both categories (Khosa, 2002; Arnall et al., 2004).
Unemployment is the most significant threat to food insecurity in South Africa (Bob, 2002; de Klerk et al., 2004). Even when the poor are able to find employment, wages are low and only sufficient to purchase minimal food requirements (Swift & Hamilton, 2001:
75). Table 2.7 presents a comprehensive analysis of the range of factors in the economic, social, political, institutional and built environment that increase vulnerability to food insecurity for low income households.
Table 2.7 Factors contributing to urban vulnerability in the external environment (de Satge`, 2002)
Economic Factors Social Factors Political and institutional factors
Built and natural environment factors Unemployment;
Retrenchment;
Casualisation;
Inflation;
Unaffordable services;
High transport costs;
Limited local economic opportunities;
Unintended consequences of development strategies which may result in increased
differentiation.
Insecure tenancy;
Overcrowding;
Violence, ethnic conflict;
Crime and gangsterism;
Ill health associated with poor living conditions;
Substance abuse;
Sexual abuse;
High risk sexual behaviour caused by poverty;
HIV/AIDS and state health policy.
Lack of voice;
Powerlessness and local demobilisation;
Tenure insecurity;
Unresponsive municipal and political leadership;
Patronage;
Corruption;
Gender-blind institutions;
The extent to which government policies and practice recognise and address the causes and effects of poverty;
Poorly integrated policies.
Peripheral location of settlements;
Unplanned/unserviced settlements;
High levels of disaster risk with respect to fire, flood, and landslides;
Drought, climate change, seasonal variability;
Exposure to hazardous wastes and pollution;
Inadequate services, poor sanitation, ground water pollution, unsafe water, dependence on basic energy sources for lighting, cooking and heating;
Poor quality of shelter.
Multiple factors in the external environment interact and impact on the household simultaneously. For instance, women may be unable to find work (economic environment), forcing them to engage in high risk sexual relationships. The urban poor live in rented homes or illegally occupy land resulting in insecure tenure and live in poor quality houses with improper water and sanitation (Maxwell et al., 2000). Failure to pay for water and electricity make the urban poor vulnerable to suspension of services (Meikle et al., 2002). Basic living needs must be paid for in cash, making the urban poor vulnerable to inflation and sudden price increases (Beall & Kanji, 1999; Aliber &
Modiselle, 2002). Poor living environments expose residents to ill health and undermine their ability to work and earn cash income.