This section discusses the components of the Learning about Livelihoods Framework (de Satge` et al., 2002). A brief summary of the framework is provided followed by a detailed explanation of assets and capabilities; livelihood activities; livelihood outcomes and the external environment within which households operate. The Learning about Livelihoods Framework (figure 2.1) is derived from Southern African approaches to livelihoods (de Satge`, 2002: xvii). The premise of the Learning about Livelihoods Framework is that households use capabilities (health, labour, power, education, skills and knowledge) to draw on social and material assets to engage in various livelihood activities. These activities may be sustainable or unsustainable and result in positive or negative livelihood outcomes.
Sustainable livelihood strategies have a positive impact on the household and the various levels of the environment in which households operate whereas unsustainable livelihood strategies further decrease the resilience of the household and negatively affect the greater environment beyond the household (de Satge`, 2002: 14). The external environment includes the physical; social; political/institutional and economic environments divided into the household; local; district; national and global or international levels (de Satge` et al., 2002: 14). Within levels of the environment there are four categories of external influences consisting of physical; social; political/institutional and economic influences (de Satge` et al., 2002:126). External influences also have positive effects on livelihoods through enabling influences or impact negatively on households through shocks and stresses (de Satge` et al., 2002: 14). Components of the Learning about Livelihoods Framework are discussed in detail in sections that follow.
Figure 2.1 The Learning about Livelihoods Framework (de Satge` et al., 2002:70).
2.4.1 Assets and capabilities
Assets and capital have the same meaning in sustainable livelihoods literature. Carney (1998: 7) defines assets as the resources upon which people depend in times of adversity.
Assets refer to physical, tangible property or material goods. Assets or capital have been used interchangeably to refer to resources which individuals, households or communities draw on to generate livelihood strategies (coping or adaptive strategies) and access livelihood resources either on a daily basis or in times of need.
At the centre of the Learning about Livelihoods Framework is the household triangle (refer to Figure 2.1) that refers to capabilities, assets and activities (de Satge` et al., 2002:
60). Social assets are intangible household assets. Claims and access are part of social assets, claims are made on individuals, family members or on civil society organisations for food, loans, or work and access is availability of an opportunity to utilise a resource, store or service to obtain food or income (Chambers & Conway, 1992). Material assets are physical items that people own or have access to such as land, water, money, credit, livestock, seed-stock, equipment, natural resources and infrastructure such as roads, electricity, water and sanitation. Capabilities refer to the knowledge, skills and ability to work or to command labour that the household depends on for livelihood security. A households capability enables it to transform assets into livelihood activities (de Satge`, 2002: 60). Capabilities not only refer to the ability to earn income, but on non-material aspects such as the quality of human life, having basic needs met rather than focusing on wealth, such as seeking proper nourishment, clothing oneself and ones family, participating in community life and gaining self respect (Dreze` & Sen, 1989: 12).
There is a close relationship between the condition and quantities of assets (both material and social) and the strength or resilience of livelihoods (Carney, 1998: 8). Assets are vulnerable. They can be stolen, destroyed or depleted (material assets) through floods, civil war or other disasters. Claims (social assets) may disappear through death of a household head or community leader (Chambers & Conway, 1992).
2.4.2 Household livelihood activities
Livelihood strategies are the activities people engage in for a living such as cultivation, wage labour, trading and hawking to achieve livelihood goals such as food and cash to satisfy human needs (Chambers & Conway, 1992). Ellis (1998a: 54;55) explains that rural households diversify livelihoods for household survival and depend on a range of activities and income sources including farm income (income from farming the household plot) and non-farm income (wage employment or urban to rural remittances).
The Learning about Livelihood Framework distinguishes between productive activities, economic activities and reproductive strategies (de Satge` et al., 2002: 64).
Productive activities are undertaken to secure access to cash, and are dependent upon the available household assets and capabilities of household members. Examples of productive activities include preparing food for sale, collecting honey, migrant labour, formal employment or casual work, livestock keeping, craftwork, repairing vehicles, running a spaza shop and illegal activities such as selling dagga and sex work (de Satge`
et al., 2002: 64).
Household reproductive activities include child care, cooking, cleaning, building and maintaining the home. Community maintenance activities involve community participation and dispute resolution (de Satge` et al., 2002: 65). Households engage in a range of these strategies simultaneously to secure access to livelihood resources (food and shelter) and to build social assets.
Livelihood strategies are not static, but constantly changing in response to changing circumstances in the external environment (for example, floods or unfavourable policy environments for micro-enterprise) over which there is little control (Cahn, undated). The livelihood strategies that people engage in depend on access to assets (or a combination of assets) and the structures and processes operating in the external environment (DfID, 1999). Some livelihood activities require specific skills or may require intensive labour and, therefore, high levels of human capital. Others may require financial capital or
physical infrastructure to transport goods (physical capital), or the assistance/advice of experts (social capital).
Households that have access to a range of assets are more likely to engage in sustainable livelihood strategies with more positive livelihood outcomes as they have a range of activities to choose from. In addition, the more livelihood options available to people, the greater their ability to absorb shocks and stresses (Cahn, undated). In the same way that assets and capabilities influence livelihood strategies, structures and processes (policies and laws) affect the livelihood choices people have. If a country‟s local policies are pro- poor they will facilitate, for example, livelihood options through labour markets, access to capital for small business, the provision of infrastructure (energy and roads) and new farm technologies (Adato & Meinzen-Dick, 2000).
2.4.3 Livelihood outcomes
Households use their capabilities and assets to attain livelihood outcomes, both tangible and intangible. Tangible assets include food, housing, education, accumulation of assets and savings. Intangible assets include greater social influence and access to social grants (de Satge` et al., 2002: 99).
South African urban and rural households rely increasingly on income to access basic resources and for improved quality of life (de Klerk et al., 2004). Households diversify sources of income from remittances, social grants, casual and wage labour to reduce vulnerability to hunger (Hendriks, 2005). Access to sufficient food is one of the outcomes that households strive for and a main reason for income diversification.
Among the material outcomes people strive for are adequate housing, appropriate water and sanitation, safety and security (de Satge` et al., 2002: 100). Education of children is an outcome that symbolises access to sufficient cash and is equally weighted with better housing, health and food in terms of higher social status (Maxwell et al., 2000). When people are unable to attain desirable livelihood outcomes, apathy; exclusion from society,
outcomes and assets, both tangible and intangible, are closely linked to livelihood strategies (Cahn, undated). Livelihood strategies depend on assets and capabilities, which in turn determine outcomes and outcomes influence asset holdings. Desirable outcomes build up assets whereas negative outcomes destabilise households by diminishing assets, making households more vulnerable to shocks and stresses (Turton, 2000).
2.4.4 The external environment
Livelihood strategies and livelihood outcomes are influenced both positively and negatively by political/institutional; economic; social and physical/environmental factors in the external environment at the local, district, national and international levels (de Satge` et al., 2002: 65; 66). Factors in the external environment or external influences constantly interact with varying levels of the environment to impact positively or negatively on households (se Satge` et al., 2002:126).
Political or institutional influences refer to structures; processes and institutions in the external environment that affect livelihood security (de Satge` et al., 2002: 66). Structures are institutions and organisations, while processes are policies, legislation and institutions that positively and negatively influence livelihoods. Structures and processes operate at all levels from the household, local, national and international levels. Structures are the organisations (private and public) that make and implement policy and determine the laws of a country. Those structures also deliver services and provide welfare and health care for people. Public sector structures include legislative organisations from local to national levels, government ministries and departments and legal courts (de Satge` et al., 2002: 66). Private sector structures include business enterprises and corporations, civil society organisations such as community based organisations and non-government organisations operating at local, national and global levels (DfID, 1999).
Structures discussed above initiate and control the processes that affect livelihood security at the household level, ultimately determining food and livelihood security.
Processes are the policies, agreements, and programmes initiated and implemented by structures (Cahn, undated). A country‟s laws determine access to capital, livelihood
strategies and institutions (Beall and Kanji, 1999). Laws and policies also determine the profitability and success of particular livelihood strategies and to a large extent determine livelihood outcomes (DfID, 1999).
Structures and processes can either enhance or constrain livelihoods (Meikle, 2001).
Processes are important as they can enhance livelihoods by providing access to assets and markets for economic opportunities leading to positive livelihood outcomes. Policies that improve access to assets such as land through land reform and land management can improve rural livelihoods (Mokgope, 2001). In this way, structures and processes are linked to vulnerability and resilience (Glavovic et al., undated). Institutions include local customs, traditional structures of authority or ways of allocating resources such as communal land and property rights that favour some people over others based on traditional gender roles or age (de Satge` et al., 2002: 13). Institutions can also refer to organisations operating or mediating between the community and higher-level institutions such as provincial or national government (Carney, 1998: 9).
Economic influences or processes include local economic development programmes such as micro-finance schemes at the local and national level for small business owners can enhance livelihoods whereas global policies such as structural adjustment programmes at the global level adversely affect livelihoods at the local level (de Satge` et al., 2002: 129).
For instance, international trade agreements and tariff barriers can cause the prices of goods to fall and lead to local farmers lower financial gains and retrenchment of farm workers (Farrington et al., 2002).
Social influences include gender equity and impact of HIV/AIDS on households (de Satge` et al., 2002: 133). Environmental influences refer to aspects in the natural and built environment that facilitate or constrain livelihood strategies and affect livelihood outcomes (de Satge`, et al., 2002: 136). The natural environment concerns issues of land conservation, natural resource management and sustainable agricultural production systems that aim to prevent pollution and environmental degradation (de Satge`et al.,
and hospitals that create employment opportunities and provide opportunities to increase household resources and capabilities (de Satge` et al., 2002: 14).