CHAPTER SIX: PRESENTATION OF THE CASE STUDY OF THE GADP
6.4 THE GADP ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT
The information about the GADP organizational structure, objectives and performance indicators leads to the conclusion that the project was not adequately planned and that this negatively affected its implementation. Other elements, which were overlooked in the process of GADP planning and which complicated the project implementation, involved external environment factors. These are dealt with in the following section.
before the genocide began) was extremely difficult for the Rwandan community, but also for the GADP. The GADP accommodated refugees from the north of Rwanda, running from the war.
They needed to prepare meals and keep warm. They had no source of energy other than the forests, planted by the GADP, and they left the area a desert. This contributed to the reduction of rainfalls and caused droughts in Gikongoro. Refugees attacked also farmers’ crops because they were in need of food. Their massive presence in the project area led to an increase in crop prices, which affected the life of the local community. Famers were particularly affected because their purchasing power was reduced to the point where they battled to survive and could not afford to buy farming inputs. These combined factors resulted in regular famines and great poverty.
From the 7th April to the 4th July 1994, there was only the horror of the genocide. Within just 3 months, almost one million of people were killed, countless livestock were killed, and resources (buildings, equipment, etc) destroyed. Most of the GADP employees were killed, others fled the country. Some of its resources were destroyed; others were taken by the killers. The reopening of the GADP in 1996 was very difficult as the project started with only a few resources (people, funds, office equipment). In consequence, the objective of increasing crop and livestock production was not achieved.
6.4.2 Ecological environment
This section is mostly concerned with the ecological dimensions of land degradation. According to Levin (2001:74), land or soil degradation is the decrease or loss of its economic or biological productivity and complexity. The reduction in the complexity of the land refers to the system’s major physical restructuring that is symptomatic of land degradation. In dry lands, this includes erosion and sedimentation by both water and wind, resulting in a redistribution of topsoil, compacting of the soil, loss of soil silt fraction, dune formation, and arroyo cutting. There may be shifts in natural fire cycles with a disruption of biogeochemical cycling, including the redistribution of essential nutrients, decreased efficiency of nutrient cycling, and increased nutrient losses from the system.
In the context of the GADP, as the soil in Gikongoro was acidic and subject to erosion, two main activities were undertaken and achieved, which aimed to keep the soil fertile through land fertilization and to protect it against erosion. The GADP (2001) states that the project promoted fertilization of land because it wanted to make land more productive. The project was given popular dissemination through radio, TV, media, meetings and training sessions to get farmers to
take part in this activity and to make the soil more fertile by using organic and chemical fertilizers. The organic fertilizers were produced by the farmers themselves by composting domestic animal waste, household waste and decaying plant material, while chemical fertilizers were industrially produced.
In relation to soil protection against erosion, GADP (2001) states, that the project had changed the landscape of Gikongoro through reforestation. This provided a solid foundation in the struggle against erosion and resulted in increased incomes from the sale of forestry products to households, schools, etc. as a source of energy. The project helped to prepare anti-erosive ditches and terraces and in reforestation. The action was financially supported by the GADP with a very small contribution from the beneficiaries (farmers). It provided farmers with free fruit and forest trees. Later, in the high altitude region, this support was withdrawn because of financial constraints of the project and fertilizers now were sold to farmers. This decision caused feelings of unhappiness among them, because the donated plants had helped to protect their land from erosion, while the fertilizers were too expensive in relation to the farmers’ purchasing power. Furthermore, the farmers had lost some of their confidence in the GADP after 1991- 1992, when the project had introduced seed potatoes, which were infected by bacteriosis. The objective of soil conservation and fertility was, due to these various reasons, ultimately not achieved.
This experience of the GADP with the farmers illustrates the importance of cooperation between projects and stakeholders. Although the GADP started to have financial problems, collaboration with the farmers could have continued, had there been adequate communication as before by means of popularization of activities through meetings, radio or other media. The GADP could have explained the reasons for the change and bring home to the farmers that the project was their own property and that they should share in its benefits and its risks. The project should have been more conscious of its role in educating people so that they could better adapt their way of living to ups and downs in terms of market prices.
Communication, negotiation and facilitation processes are factors that should be highly rated in the managing of change (Mackay and Horton, 2003), because collaborative and participative action increase the stakeholders’ understanding of the project (O’Sullivan (2004:23). Moreover, Rwandan people normally work hard and are cooperative. The GADP should have taken
advantage of this work ethic and culture, and avoided free inputs altogether. That the project did not do so undermined development efforts at individual and at project level.
6.4.3 Climatic environment
According to Sembajwe et al. (2006), environmental degradation, food insecurity and declining agricultural productivity are the main causes of increasing poor quality of human life and growing poverty in Africa. The increasing rate of population density is one of the factors that intensify environmental degradation. As rural people rely on agriculture for their living, the severity of their poverty is closely related to the decline of natural resources (forests, rainfall and water). The shortage of these resources results in diminishing agricultural productivity and subsequent decrease of income. That is exactly what has happened in Rwanda, especially in Gikongoro province. Table 6-4 shows how rainfalls have decreased as a result of the effects of human behaviour on natural resources.
Table 6-4: Rainfall (in mm)
Source: GADP (2001).
The weather was not good in the years 1996 and 2000. Table 6-4 shows the decrease of rainfall in mm per year in comparison to the years 1997, 1998 and 1999. This had an impact on food and cash crops (in quality and quantity), especially in 2000 when drought affected Gikongoro severely. In the context of the protection and conservation of natural resources (land, forest, water, etc), the respondents (8 farmers) of the current study said, that some achievements had been made in forestry activities (forestation and forest maintenance), terracing, actions against erosion and for fertilization of farmland. This would contribute to reduce the risk of bad weather.
However, these farmers indicated that problems arose in the following areas:
Month 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
January 67.8 49.5 202.3 262.1 88.9
February 257.6 180.5 229.7 32.6 168.3
March 124.0 148.1 145.3 289.3 151.5
April 61.2 231.5 202.5 160.8 129.8
May 74.6 173.0 114.3 88.4 53.8
June 71.2 64.0 33.5 1.9 5.3
July 17.9 0.0 13.7 0.0 0.8
August 86.0 12.8 5.9 151.9 10.7
September 17.4 43.9 114.5 121.0 41.9
October 127.7 134.7 173.8 70.8 94.1
November 43.5 170.5 63.9 178.4 258.7
December 119.4 180.7 134.7 146.5 129.2
Annual total 1068.3 1389.2 1434.1 1503.7 1133
• Farmland was too small to accommodate all activities of conservation and protection of natural resources;
• Lack of equipment, required for activities related to the conservation and protection of natural resources due to lack of financing, and which also impacted on production levels;
• People were not paid by the GADP for work done in developing valley land;
• General lack of financing which resulted, in turn, in problems with constructing dams, and a lack of water needed when rainfalls were not enough.
• Bad weather had a negative impact on the harvest (decrease of production);
The government of Rwanda is worried about environmental protection (Bugingo and Habumuremyi, 2007). In this regard, during an interview carried out in Development Gateway on 6th June 2007, the Rwandan Minister of State in Charge of Lands and Environment explained how the government of Rwanda is dealing with unpredictable climate change and its effects, and adjusting to global warming, notably through better water management. She focused on water decrease as the result of degradation of land and of soil erosion that contributes to the decline of rainfalls and the higher maintenance requirements of lakes, rivers, and marshlands. She said that the decrease in available water has negative implications for the national economy and the biodiversity, particularly affecting agricultural productivity and the supply of electricity, and she had depleted the government budget used to cope with these emergencies. The poor supply of electricity has contributed to the increased production costs of manufacturing industries which makes goods and services more expensive. Frequent floods have swept away homes, personal belongings and livestock, and were the cause of some human deaths.
The effects of global warming are increasing, as the average temperature continues to rise. For instance, the average temperature went from 32.4°C in 2002, to 38°C in 2005. The northern- eastern region (Bugesera and Nyagatare) of the country was worst affected. In the past, it was possible for Rwandans to predict the right time for planting and harvesting. But this is no longer the case. The minister went on to say that the challenges for the government today are to sensitize people about global warming so that they are able to adapt to this situation. Because the climate change is not predictable, people have to adopt new agricultural techniques that require less water (water resources management) and fight against erosion by planting trees, covering soil and preserving forests (Bugingo and Habumuremyi, 2007).
This strategy, if applied, might prove to be a good way to counter the effects of the changing climate environment, because recent studies project that a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide (due to the rapidly expanding human population and associated activities) would result in lower precipitation, as well as shifts in the timing and frequency of rains, in the interior of large continents (Williams and Balhing, 1996 quoted in Levin, 2001:74-75).
This is exactly what happened in the Gikongoro province as mentioned in section 5.4.1.
Gikongoro is one of the regions of Rwanda that are affected by natural disasters such as floods and droughts, mainly as a result of human action (deforestation). These plagues have regularly caused severe famines and increased poverty in the region. Figure 6-4 indicates some causes of climate changes and their impact on poverty.
Figure 6-4: Some factors of climate changes and their impact on agricultural productivity and poverty
Decrease of rainfalls Demography
Droughts
Water decrease
Electricity decline Natural
resources decline
Natural resources
State land management Natural
disasters
Farm and pasture land decrease
Increase of product cost in manufacturing industries
Purchasing power decrease Degradation of
farmed land and decrease of agricultural Human
action
Heavy rains
Soil erosion Floods
Low level of production in manufacturing industries
Market price increase Decrease of
crop production Crop diseases
Destruction of human life, houses and household belongings
Low income in households Low labor
productivity Increase of
poverty in households
Natural disasters such as strong winds, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, may cause changes in weather (droughts, heavy rains and floods). Human actions (Figure 6-4) also can cause some of these changes, for instance when people deplete natural resources such as forests and water.
Whether they are caused by natural disasters or by human behavior, changes in climate affect the development of the population, which requires healthy environmental, economic and social conditions
As Figure 6-4 indicates, natural disasters and a decrease of natural resources cause diminishing rainfalls with resulting water decrease. The shortage of water reduces the supply of electricity for manufacturing industries, with the effect of increasing the production costs and decreasing the level of manufactured products. Crop diseases, diminishing rainfalls and hence, decline of available water (for irrigation), also lead to a decrease of crop production and this in turn reduces the production in manufacturing industries. The higher production cost and the low level of manufactured goods lead to a rise in market prices, which in turn, impacts negatively on the purchasing power of people. This chain of occurrences intensifies poverty. Furthermore, droughts and floods destroy human lives, their property (houses, domestic animals and agricultural equipment) and crops in the fields. The reduction of crop harvests further negatively affects the state and household economy, as described above.
The GADP faced some of these problems. Section 6.4.1 indicates how people in Gikongoro contributed to the depletion of forests. Their actions caused regular droughts, famines and poverty in the region, with further consequences for the national economy. This complex situation indicates that, for sustainable human development to be possible, people have to live in perfect harmony with their natural environment because being its enemy means hurting themselves in the short and the long term. The lack of resources (money and equipment) and water management strategy, along with poor climate conditions, adversely affected the achievement of the GADP objectives of increase of crop and livestock production, reforestation, soil fertility and conservation, and improvement of diet.
6.4.4 Demographic environment
The demographics of Gikongoro province have changed dramatically in the period of 1991- 1996. Table 6-5 shows the fluctuations in population numbers and the effects of unrest and displacement for that period.
Table 6-5: Number and movement of population in Gikongoro over the period 1991-1996
Year Total number of population
1991 466 576
March 1994 511 038
1994: decrease in number: dead and refugees 115 208
1994: population displaced to Gikongoro Province 354 037
1994 (at the end): resettlement 748 438
1996 (April): new situation
• Males
• Females
• Households
400 767 187 883 212 884 93 335
Source: GADP (2001).
From 1991 to 1996, the size of the population in Gikongoro varied. Up to March 1994 there was an increase (influx of refugees), followed by a decrease in the same year when the genocide occurred and people fell victim to ideology or ethnic identity. Of the survivors some left the country. Others relocated from their different provinces to Gikongoro province, hence the different figures in that year. At the end of the year the new government tried to resettle people in their homes. The population started to increase from 1996. In 1996, females outnumbered males. This is because most men were killed and others fled the country, whereas it was more difficult to flee for women with babies and pregnant women. The demographic changes had bad implications for farming activities and the GADP. They also caused people to destroy forests in search of wood. The wood was a source of energy (fire for cooking and heating) and of charcoal for generating family incomes. The deforestation resulted in the dramatic reduction of rainfall patterns as mentioned in Figure 6-4.
This is in accordance with Levin (2001:75-76), who affirms that in large areas of Africa, civil strife and government policies are key factors influencing resources (land, wildlife and water), degradation of land, and food security. Civil conflict displaces many people from their homes, who frequently move to other poor regions. They leave their land unattended, losing their original management systems and they begin a new life, using the farming and ranching methods that they are familiar with but that usually are not suitable to the new environment. In some countries, government policies have promoted the establishment of human settlements in the water margins of barren and semiarid lands or close to water supplies. The use of land has led to conflicts between human settlements, agriculture, wildlife and livestock, as a result of the interference of agriculture with lands usually reserved for domestic stock.
Often, this intrusion of agriculture is the result of the population increase with bigger households, which leads to a reduction of available farmland. This was one of the problems faced by the GADP when developing land in the lowest lying valleys and at high altitudes.
Table 6-6 for example shows that the average household counted about 5 members. The average size farm plot could not have satisfied the needs of a family that size.
Table 6-6: Demographic data in 1991 in the project zone
Total number of population 238 281
Land available (ha) 76 470
Number of households 50 292
Available land per household (ha) 1.52
Members per household 4.7
Source: GADP (2001).
Table 6-6 indicates that available land per household was 1.52 ha for almost 5 people per household. As seen earlier in this chapter, the population density is very high: 250 to 400 inhabitants /km². Besides, the land is of too poor a quality to produce satisfactory crops. This may be one of the causes of chronic poverty in the region. According to IFAD et al. (1993), food insecurity in Gikongoro was due to the increasing number of small farmers, not able to sustain themselves on less than ½ ha of farmland. In addition, women headed almost 40% of farmer households as a result of migration caused by the war and the genocide. Rural young people and households of older people were particularly affected. The decrease of the productive labour force and the unequal distribution of farmland resulted in poor agricultural productivity, decrease of food and market crops, and low family income. This adversely affected the economy and livelihoods of the community of Gikongoro.
Besides the increasing growth of the population and the decreasing amount of arable land, the complexity of the land problem is also due to the unequal distribution of land as seen in section 6.1.1. So, the GADP project was well placed to develop farmland in order to help solving the chronic problem of food insecurity and poverty in the region, because, in general, there is a close relationship between productivity and land farmed as Table 6-7 indicates.