CHAPTER TWO: RURAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND CONCEPTS
2.2. GEOGRAPHY AND DEVELOPMENT
This study focuses on the nexus between population factors, economic factors, and environmental factors from a geographical perspective. Development geography is one of the focus areas of Human Geography. The so-called human development approach is central to this study. Ul Haq (2003) explains human development theories by drawing on the ideas of early leaders of political and economic thought. These include Aristotle’s idea of social arrangements that promote ‘the human good’ and that lead to ‘flourishing lives’; Kant’s notion of treating human beings as an end withal (never as a means only); and Adam Smith’s concept of integrating the poor into the mainstream of the community (ul Haq, 2003). Ul Haq (2003) also reflects on the work of Robert Malthus, Karl Marx, and Stuart Mill, and also engages with the work of Amartya Sen. Thus, the theoretical foundation of human development is broad, encompassing several areas of human life. It does not only deal with economic income, but rather encompasses all human choices, whether economic, social, cultural and/or political (ul Haq, 2003).
Within the field of Developmental Geography, many theories and their counter-, approaches, programmes and paradigms attempt to make sense of the successes and failures of development projects. Over time, development thinkers, researchers, practitioners, governments, donor agencies, and policymakers have often sought to categorise places by using a scale of development, i.e., dividing nations into the
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“developed” and “developing”, "First World" and "Third World”, or "core" and
"periphery" (Boampong, 2017). According to Juliet (2017), all these labels are based on the evaluation of a country's development; but this raises the question: What exactly does it mean to be "developed"? And why have some countries developed while others have not? Juliet (2017) explains that since the beginning of the 18th century, development thinkers and those involved in the vast field of development studies have sought to answer this question, and in the process, have presented many different meanings and models/theories to explain this phenomenon.
Various scholars tend to emphasise that development denotes advancement from a lower to a higher stage, with no end in sight (McNeill, 2007). Importantly, this approach emerged out of a process of thinking about and searching for alternative ways to assess economic and social progress - beyond the usual income and economic growth considerations (Deneulin, 2009; McNeill, 2007). The economic measures of development became dominant after the Second World War and interlock with several development theories that are often regarded as ‘top-down’ theories and that fail to explain development in terms of the well-being of people (Mensah, 2019).
According to Todaro and Smith (2012:16), “Development must be conceived of as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, and the reduction of poverty”. Kutor (2014) notes that development includes both quantitative and qualitative aspects that occur in all facets of human endeavour, ranging from social and cultural factors to economic, political and environmental factors. From the viewpoints of Kutor (2014) and Todaro and Smith (2012), development should recognise cultural, ethnic, and national diversity. It is clear, as contended by Sen (2009), that economic development is a means to an end within the broader context of human development. Peercy and Svenson (2016) suggest that the development of human skills could build healthier, richer, and more equitable societies. It is, therefore, important to look at human capabilities based on a perspective that is not only concerned with increasing people’s skills but rather adopts a broad conception of human and economic well-being.
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The main argument behind the human development approach is that mainstream measures of development pay too much attention to achievement in terms of economic growth, while neglecting the other elements that people regard as important for a full and meaningful human life. In considering the traditional emphasis on economic growth and national income, ul Haq (1995:24) explains that “people as the agents of change and of development were often forgotten”. As the shortcomings of the traditional measures of development became apparent, different approaches to human development reached prominence, particularly in the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) through its Human Development Report (HDR), published annually since 1990 (Alkire, 2010). To this end, the recognition of civil society organisations (CSOs) as an important component in delivering social services and in social accountability came to the fore. The demand for meaningful change (ul Hag, 1995) in the lives of the people on the ground in development projects strengthens the significance of refining, monitoring, and evaluation systems for improving accountability and transparency. Organised, active and participating citizens can influence service delivery by taking charge of the relevant preliminary contracts and participation in the provision and delivery of services. It is no longer a priority of communities to strive to be observers of their own development; rather, they want to take charge and hold government accountable in instances where they feel marginalised (Majova, 2018).
Again, development can be approached from different perspectives and for the purposes of this study, it is, as such, important to take cognisance of macro and micro- development theories. According to Coetzee (2001:118), “a micro-development perspective comprises a people-centred approach; it is distinct in that it defines development as the satisfaction of basic needs in terms of the right of individuals to lead a meaningful life”. In offering a new discourse on development, the micro- development perspective focuses on such concepts as human rights, participation, empowerment, transparency, accountability, ownership and well-being (Mensah, 2019).
Against the background of this discussion, the next section explores the notion of rural development, which includes an analysis of the evolution and the historical phases of this theoretical concept.
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